Fission-fusion and the evolution of hominin social systems

Journal of Human Evolution

Volumn 62, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 191-200

  Grove, Matt ^a   Pearce, Eiluned ^b   Dunbar, R I M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Foraging pattern; Group size; Hunter gatherer; Latitude; Population density

Indexed keywords

FORAGING BEHAVIOR; FOSSIL RECORD; GROUP SIZE; HABITAT QUALITY; HUMAN EVOLUTION; HUNTER-GATHERER; MIGRATION; POPULATION DENSITY; PRIMATE;

EAST AFRICA; SOUTH AFRICA;

HOMO ERECTUS; HOMO HEIDELBERGENSIS; HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHALENSIS; PRIMATES;

EID: 84856532692     PISSN: 00472484     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.10.012     Document Type: Article

References (171)

1. Aiello L.C., Dunbar R.I.M. Neocortex size, group size, and the evolution of language. Curr. Anthropol. 1993, 34:184-193.
2. Aiello L.C., Wheeler P. The expensive tissue hypothesis: the brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution. Curr. Anthropol. 1995, 36:199-221.
3. Aiello L.C., Wheeler P. Neanderthal thermoregulation and the glacial climate. Neanderthals and Modern Humans in the European Landscape of the Last Glaciation - Archaeological Results of the Stage 3 Project 2003, 147-166. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge. T.H. van Andel, W.D. Davies (Eds.).
4. Alexander R.D. The evolution of social behavior. A.Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1974, 45:325-383.
5. Altmann S.A. Baboons, space, time, and energy. Am. Zool. 1974, 14:221-248.
6. Antón S.C. Natural history of Homo erectus. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 2003, 46:126-169.
7. Antón S.C., Leonard W.R., Robertson M.L. An ecomorphological model of the initial hominid dispersal from Africa. J.Hum. Evol. 2002, 43:773-785.
8. Asensio N., Korstjens A.H., Aureli F. Fissioning minimizes ranging costs in spider monkeys: a multiple-level approach. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2009, 63:649-659.
9. Bailey H.P. Amethod of determining the warmth and temperateness of climate. Geogr. Ann. 1960, 42:1-16.
10. Barrett L., Lowen C.B. Random walks and the gas model: spacing behaviour of grey-cheeked mangabeys. Funct. Ecol. 1998, 12:857-865.
11. Berger L.R., de Ruiter D.J., Churchill S.E., Schmid P., Carlson K.J., Dirks P.H.G.M., Kibii J.M. Australopithecus sediba: a new species of Homo-like australopith from South Africa. Science 2010, 328:195-204.
12. Bermejo M., Illera G. Tool-set for termite-fishing and honey extraction by wild chimpanzees in the Lossi forest, Congo. Primates 1999, 81:619-627.
13. Bettridge C., Lehmann J., Dunbar R.I.M. Trade-offs between time, predation risk and life history, and their implications for biogeography: a systems modelling approach with a primate case study. Ecol. Model. 2010, 221:777-790.
14. Binford L.R. Willow smoke and dogs' tails: hunter-gatherer settlement systems and archaeological site formation. Am. Antiq. 1980, 45:4-20.
15. Binford L.R. The archaeology of place. J.Anthropol. Archaeol. 1982, 1:5-31.
16. Binford L.R. Constructing Frames of Reference: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter-Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets 2001, University of California Press, Berkeley.
17. Birdsell J.B. Some environmental and cultural factors influencing the structuring of Australian aboriginal populations. Am. Nat. 1953, 87:171-207.
18. Birdsell J.B. On population structure in generalized hunting and collecting populations. Evolution 1958, 12:189-205.
19. Birdsell J.B. Some predictions for the Pleistocene based on equilibria systems among recent hunters and gatherers. Man the Hunter 1968, 229-240. Aldine, Chicago. R.B. Lee, I. DeVore (Eds.).
20. Blackburn T.M., Lawton J.H., Perry J.N. Amethod of estimating the slope of upper bounds plots of body size and abundance in natural animal assemblages. Oikos 1992, 65:107-112.
21. Blumenschine R.J., Pobiner B.J. Zooarchaeology and the ecology of Oldowan hominin carnivory. Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowlable 2007, 167-190. Oxford University Press, Oxford. P. Ungar (Ed.).
22. Blumenschine R.J., Selvaggio M.M. Percussions marks on bone surfaces as a new diagnostic of hominid behavior. Nature 1988, 333:763-765.
23. Brain C.K. The Hunters or the Hunted? An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy 1981, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
24. Broom M., Ruxton G.D. Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism. Behav. Ecol. 1998, 9:397-403.
25. Bunn H.T. Archaeological evidence for meat eating by Plio-Pleistocene hominids from Koobi Fora and Olduvai Gorge. Nature 1981, 291:574-577.
26. Bunn H.T. Meat made us human. Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowlable 2007, 191-211. Oxford University Press, Oxford. P. Ungar (Ed.).
27. Burch E.S. Eskimo Kinsmen: changing Family relationships in Northwest Alaska. Am. Ethnological Soc. Monogr. 1975, 59. (West Publishing, New York).
28. Caraco T.M., Wolf L.L. Ecological determinants of group sizes in foraging lions. Am. Nat. 1975, 109:343-352.
29. Carvalho S., Cunha E., Sousa C., Matsuzawa T. Chaines operatoires and resource-exploitation strategies in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) nut cracking. J.Hum. Evol. 2008, 55:148-163.
30. Chapman C.A. Ecological constraints on group size in three species of neotropical primates. Folia Primatol. 1990, 55:1-9.
31. Chapman C.A., Chapman L.J. Constraints on group size in red colobus and red-tailed guenons: examining the generality of the ecological constraints model. Int. J. Primatol. 2000, 21:565-585.
32. Chapman C.A., Wrangham R.W., Chapman L.J. Ecological constraints on group size: an analysis of spider monkey and chimpanzee subgroups. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1995, 36:59-70.
33. Cosner C. Adynamic model for the ideal-free distribution as a partial differential equation. Theor. Popul. Biol. 2005, 67:101-108.
34. Creel S., Creel N.M. Communal hunting and pack size in African wild dogs, Lycaon pictus. Anim. Behav. 1995, 50:1325-1339.
35. Daegling D.G., Grine F.E. Mandibular biomechanics and the paleontological evidence for the evolution of human diet. Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable 2007, 77-105. Oxford University Press, Oxford. P.S. Ungar (Ed.).
36. Damuth J. Home range, home range overlap, and species energy use among herbivorous mammals. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 1981, 15:185-193.
37. Damuth J. Population density and body size in mammals. Nature 1981, 290:699-700.
38. Damuth J. Interspecific allometry of population density and body size in mammals and other animals: the independence of body mass and population energy use. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 1987, 31:193-246.
39. Dixon, R.M.W., 1976. Tribes, languages and other boundaries in northeast Queensland. In: Peterson, N. (Ed.), Tribes and Boundaries in Australia. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, pp. 207-238.
40. Dobzhansky T. Evolution in the tropics. Am. Sci. 1950, 38:209-221.
41. Dunbar R.I.M. Neocortex size as a constraint in group size in primates. J.Hum. Evol. 1992, 22:469-493.
42. Dunbar R.I.M. Time - a hidden constraint on the behavioral ecology of baboons. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1992, 31:35-49.
43. Dunbar R.I.M. Coevolution of neocortical size, group size, and language in humans. Behav. Brain Sci. 1993, 16:681-694.
44. Dunbar R.I.M. The mating system of callitrichid primates: I. Conditions for the coevolution of pair bonding and twinning. Anim. Behav. 1995, 50:1057-1070.
45. Dunbar R.I.M. The social brain hypothesis. Evol. Anthropol. 1998, 6:178-190.
46. Dunbar R.I.M. Male mating strategies: a modeling approach. Primate Males: Causes and Consequences of Variation in Group Composition 2000, 259-268. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. P.M. Kappeler (Ed.).
47. Dunbar R.I.M. The social brain: mind, language, and society in evolutionary perspective. A.Rev. Anthropol. 2003, 32:163-181.
48. Dunbar R.I.M. Why only humans have language. The Prehistory of Language 2009, 12-35. Oxford University Press, Oxford. C. Knight, R. Botha (Eds.).
49. Dunbar R.I.M., Korstjens A.H., Lehmann J. Time as an ecological constraint. Biol. Rev. 2009, 84:413-429.
50. Elton C.S. Animal Ecology 1927, Sidgwick and Jackson, London.
51. Foster W.A., Treherne J.E. Evidence for the dilution effect in the selfish herd from fish predation on a marine insect. Nature 1981, 293:466-467.
52. Free C.A., Beddington J.R., Lawton J.H. Inadequacy of simple models of mutual interference for parasitism and predation. J.Anim. Ecol. 1977, 46:543-554.
53. Fretwell S.D., Lucas H.L.J. On territorial behaviour and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds, part 1: theoretical development. Acta Biotheor. 1970, 19:16-36.
54. Furuichi T. Factors underlying party size differences between chimpanzees and bonobos: a review and hypotheses for future study. Primates 2009, 50:197-209.
55. Gamble C. Timewalkers: The Prehistory of Global Colonization 1993, Alan Sutton, Stroud.
56. Gamble C. Human display and dispersal: a case study from biotidal Britain in the middle and upper pleistocene. Evol. Anthropol. 2009, 18:144-156.
57. Ganas J., Robbins M.M. Ranging behavior of the mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Bwindi impenetrable national park, Uganda: a test of the ecological constraints model. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2005, 58:277-288.
58. Gillespie T.R., Chapman C.A. Determinants of group size in the red colobus monkey (Procolobus badius): an evaluation of the generality of the ecological-constraints model. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2001, 50:329-338.
59. Giraldeau L.A., Gillis D. Do lions hunt in group sizes that maximize hunters' daily food returns?. Anim. Behav. 1988, 36:611-613.
60. Gittleman J.L. Carnivore group-living: comparative trends. Carnivore Behavior, Ecology, and Evolution 1989, 183-207. Cornell University Press, Ithaca. J.L. Gittleman (Ed.).
61. Goldsmith M.L. Ecological constraints on the foraging effort of western gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic. Int. J. Primatol. 1999, 20:1-23.
62. Gompper M.E. Sociality and asociality in white-nosed coatis (Nasua narica): foraging costs and benefits. Behav. Ecol. 1996, 7:254-263.
63. Gowlett J.A.J. The longest transition or multiple revolutions? Curves and steps in the record of human origins. Sourcebook of Palaeolithic Transitions 2009, 65-78. Springer, New York. M. Camps, P. Chuahan (Eds.).
64. Gregorczuk M., Cena K. Distribution of effective temperature over the globe. Int. J. Biometeorol. 1967, 2:35-39.
65. Grove M. Hunter-gatherer movement patterns: causes and constraints. J.Anthropol. Archaeol. 2009, 28:222-233.
66. Grove M. The archaeology of group size. Proc. Brit. Acad. 2010, 158:391-411.
67. Grove M. Logistical mobility reduces subsistence risk in hunting economies. J.Archaeol. Sci. 2010, 37:1913-1921.
68. Grove M. Stone circles and the structure of Bronze Age society. J.Archaeol. Sci. 2010, 37:2612-2621.
69. Grove M. The quantitative analysis of mobility: ecological techniques and archaeological extensions. New Perspectives on Old Stones 2010, 149-187. Springer, New York. S. Lycett, P. Chuahan (Eds.).
70. Grove M. An archaeological signature of multi-level social systems: the case of the Irish bronze age. J.Anthropol. Archaeol 2011, 30:44-61.
71. Grove M. Speciation, diversity, and mode 1 technologies: the impact of variability selection. J.Hum. Evol. 2011, 61:306-319.
72. Gursky S. Associations between adult spectral tarsiers. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 2005, 128:74-83.
73. Hamilton M.J., Milne B.T., Walker R.S., Burger O., Brown J.H. The complex structure of hunter-gatherer social networks. Proc. Roy. Soc. B 2007, 274:2195-2202.
74. Harcourt A.H., Greenberg J. Do gorilla females join males to avoid infanticide? A quantitative model. Anim. Behav. 2001, 62:905-915.
75. Harestad A.S., Bunnell F.L. Home range and body weight - a re-evaluation. Ecology 1979, 60:389-402.
76. Hill R.A., Dunbar R.I.M. Social network size in humans. Hum. Nat. 2003, 14:53-72.
77. Holenweg A.-K., Noe R., Schabel M. Waser's gas model applied to associations between red colobus and Diana monkeys in the Taï National Park, Ivory Coast. Folia Primatol. 1996, 67:125-136.
78. Holliday T.W. Postcranial evidence of cold adaptation in European Neandertals. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1997, 104:245-258.
79. Howell N. Demography of the Dobe !Kung 1979, Aldine de Gruyter, New York.
80. Hublin J.J., Roebroeks W. Ebb and flow or regional extinctions? On the character of Neandertal occupation of northern environments. C.R. Palevol. 2009, 8:503-509.
81. Isaac G.L. Chronology and the tempo of cultural change during the Pleistocene. The Calibration of Hominoid Evolution 1972, 381-430. Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh. W.W. Bishop, J.A. Miller (Eds.).
82. Kano T. The social group of pygmy chimpanzees (Pan paniscus) of Wamba. Primates 1982, 23:171-188.
83. Kaplan H., Hill K. Food sharing among ache foragers: tests of explanatory hypotheses. Curr. Anthropol. 1985, 26:223-246.
84. Kaplan H., Hill K., Hurtado A.M. Risk, foraging and food sharing among the ache. Risk and Uncertainty in Tribal and Peasant Economies 1990, 107-143. Westview Press, Boulder. E.A. Cashdan (Ed.).
85. Kappeler P.M., van Schaik C.P. Evolution of primate social systems. Int. J. Primatol. 2002, 23:707-740.
86. Kays R.W., Gittleman J.L. The social organization of the kinkajou Potos flavus (Procyonidae). J.Zool. 2001, 253:491-504.
87. Kelly R.L. Hunter-gatherer mobility strategies. J.Anthropol. Res. 1983, 39:277-306.
88. Kelly R.L. The Foraging Spectrum 1995, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
89. Kimbel W.H., Walter R.C., Johanson D.C., Reed K.E., Aronson J.L., Assefa Z., Marean C.W., Eck G.G., Robe R., Hovers E., Rak Y., Vondra C., Yemane T., York D., Chen Y., Evensen N.M., Smith P.E. Late Pliocene Homo and Oldowan tools from the Hadar Formation (Kada Hadar member), Ethiopia. J.Hum. Evol. 1996, 31:549-561.
90. Klein L.L., Klein D.B. Feeding behaviour of the Colombian spider monkey. Primate Ecology 1977, 154-181. Academic Press, London. T.H. Clutton-Brock (Ed.).
91. Korstjens A.H., Dunbar R.I.M. Time constraints limit group sizes and distribution in red and black-and-white colobus. Int. J. Primatol. 2007, 28:551-575.
92. Korstjens A.H., Verhoeckx I.L., Dunbar R.I.M. Time as a constraint on group size in spider monkeys. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2006, 60:683-694.
93. Krakauer D.C. Groups confuse predators by exploiting perceptual bottlenecks: a connectionist model of the confusion effect. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1995, 36:421-429.
94. Kramer P.A., Eck G.G. Locomotor energetics and leg length in hominid bipedality. J.Hum. Evol. 2000, 38:651-666.
95. Krivan V. Dynamic ideal free distribution: effects of optimal patch choice on predator-prey dynamics. Am. Nat. 1997, 149:164-178.
96. Kruuk H. Feeding and social behaviour of the striped hyaena (Hyaena vulgaris Desmarest). E.Afr. Wildl. J. 1976, 14:91-111.
97. Kusimba S.B. African Foragers: Environment, Technology, Interactions 2003, AltaMira Press, Walnut Creek.
98. Lahr M.M., Foley R. Multiple dispersals and modern human origins. Evol. Anthropol. 1994, 3:48-60.
99. Lahr M.M., Foley R.A. Towards a theory of modern human origins: geography, demography, and diversity in recent human evolution. Yearb. Phys. Anthropol. 1998, 41:137-176.
100. Layton, R. The evolution of modern hunter-gatherer society. In: Pauketat, T., Robb, J. (Eds.), From Moments to Millennia: Scale and Change in Human History. School of Advanced Research, Santa Fe, in press.
101. Layton R., O'Hara S. Human social evolution: a comparison of hunter-gatherer and chimpanzee social organisation. Proc. Brit. Acad. 2010, 158:83-113.
102. Lee-Thorp J. Hominin dietary niches from proxy chemical indicators in fossils: the Swartkrans example. Human Diet 2002, 123-141. Bergin and Garvey, Westport. P.S. Ungar, M.F. Teaford (Eds.).
103. Lehmann J., Boesch C. To fission or to fusion: effects of community size on wild chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) social organisation. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2004, 56:207-216.
104. Lehmann J., Dunbar R.I.M. Implications of body mass and predation for ape social system and biogeographical distribution. Oikos 2009, 118:379-390.
105. Lehmann J., Korstjens A.H., Dunbar R.I.M. Fission-fusion social systems as a strategy for coping with ecological constraints: a primate case. Evol. Ecol. 2007, 21:613-634.
106. Lehmann J., Korstjens A.H., Dunbar R.I.M. Time and distribution: a model of ape biogeography. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 2008, 20:337-359.
107. Leonard W.R., Robertson M.L. Ecological correlates of home range variation in primates: implications for hominid evolution. On the Move: How and Why Animals Travel in Groups 2000, 628-648. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. S. Boinski, P. Garber (Eds.).
108. Lisiecki L.E., Raymo M.E. LR04 Global Pliocene-Pleistocene Benthic D18O Stack 2005, IGBP PAGES/World Data Center for Paleoclimatology Data Contribution Series #2005-008. NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder, USA.
109. Littleton J., Allen H. Hunter-gatherer burials and the creation of persistent places in southeastern Australia. J.Anthropol. Archaeol. 2007, 26:283-298.
110. Lowen C.B., Dunbar R.I.M. Territory size and defendability in primates. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1994, 35:347-354.
111. Martin R.D. Primate Origins and Evolution 1990, Chapman and Hall, London.
112. McPherron S.P., Alemseged Z., Marean C.W., Wynn J.G., Reed D., Geraads D., Bobe R., Bearat H.A. Evidence for stone-tool-assisted consumption of animal tissues before 3.39 million years ago at Dikika, Ethiopia. Nature 2010, 466:857-860.
113. Mills M.G.L. Kalahari Hyaenas: Comparative Behavioral Ecology of Two Species 1990, Unwin Hyman, London.
114. Milton K. Ahypothesis to explain the role of meat-eating in human evolution. Evol. Anthropol. 1999, 8:11-21.
115. Milton K. The critical role played by animal source foods in human (Homo) evolution. J.Nutrit 2003, 133:3886S-3892S.
116. Milton K., May M.L. Body weight, diet, and home range area in primates. Nature 1976, 259:459-462.
117. Mitani J.C., Grethier G.F., Rodman P.S., Priatna D. Associations among wild orang-utans: sociality, passive aggregations or chance?. Anim. Behav. 1991, 42:33-46.
118. Murdock G.P. Social Structure 1949, Macmillan, New York.
119. Nishida T. The social group of wild chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains. Primates 1968, 9:167-224.
120. Pearce, E., Dunbar, R.I.M. Latitudinal variation in light levels drives human visual system size. Biol. Letters, in press.
121. Peterson N. Hunter-gatherer territoriality: perspectives from Australia. Am. Anthropol. 1975, 77:53-68.
122. Pianka E.R. Latitudinal gradients in species diversity: a review of concepts. Am. Nat. 1966, 100:33-46.
123. Pontzer H., Raichlen D.A., Sockol M.D. The metabolic cost of walking in humans, chimpanzees, and early hominins. J.Hum. Evol. 2009, 56:43-54.
124. Pulliam H.R. On the advantages of flocking. J.Theoret. Biol. 1973, 38:419-422.
125. Pulliam H.R., Caraco T.M. Living in groups: is there an optimal group size?. Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach 1984, 122-147. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland. J.R. Krebs, N.B. Davies (Eds.).
126. Raichlen D.A., Gordon A.D., Harcourt-Smith W.E.H., Foster A.D., Haas W.R. Laetoli footprints preserve earliest direct evidence of human-like bipedal biomechanics. PLOS One 2010, 5:e9769.
127. Rapoport E.H. Areography: Geographical Strategies of Species 1982, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
128. Roche H., Delagnes A., Brugal J.P., Feibel C., Kibunjia M., Mourre V., Texier P.J. Early hominid stone tool production and technical skill 2.34 Myr ago in west Turkana, Kenya. Nature 1999, 399:57-60.
129. Rightmire G.P. Diversity within the genus Homo. Paleoclimate and Evolution, with Emphasis on Human Origins 1984, 483-492. Yale University Press, New Haven. E.S. Vrba, G.H. Denton, T.C. Partridge, L.H. Burckle (Eds.).
130. Ruxton G.D. Foraging in flocks: nonspatial models may neglect important costs. Ecol. Model. 1995, 82:277-285.
131. Sanz C., Call J., Morgan D. Design complexity in termite-fishing tools of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Biol. Lett. 2009, 5:293-296.
132. Shea J.J. Lithic archaeology, or, what stone tools can (and can't) tell us about early hominin diets. Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowlable 2007, 212-231. Oxford University Press, Oxford. P. Ungar (Ed.).
133. Shimooka Y. Seasonal variation in association patterns of wild spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth belzebuth) at La Macarena, Colombia. Primates 2003, 44:83-90.
134. Sillen A., Hall G., Armstrong R. Strontium calcium ratios (SR/CA) and strontium isotopic ratios (SR-87/SR-86) of Australopithecus robustus and Homo sp. from Swartkrans. J.Hum. Evol. 1995, 28:277-285.
135. Smith R.J. Biology and body size in human evolution - statistical inference misapplied. Current Anthropology 1996, 37:451-481.
136. Smith J.E., Kolowski J.M., Graham K.E., Dawes S.E., Holekamp K.E. Social and ecological determinants of fission-fusion dynamics in the spotted hyaena. Anim. Behav. 2008, 76:619-636.
137. Sponheimer M., Lee-Thorp J., de Ruiter D. Icarus, isotopes, and australopith diets. Evolution of the Hominin Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable 2007, 150-164. Oxford University Press, Oxford. P.S. Ungar (Ed.).
138. Stanner W.E.H. Aboriginal territorial organisation: estate, range, domain and regime. Oceania 1965, 36:1-26.
139. Stephan H., Frahm H., Baron G. New and revised data on the brain structures in insectivores and primates. Folia Primatol. 1981, 35:1-29.
140. Stern J.T., Susman R.L. The locomotor anatomy of Australopithecus afarensis. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1983, 60:279-317.
141. Steudel K. Limb morphology, bipedal gait, and the energetics of hominid locomotion. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 1996, 99:345-355.
142. Stevens G.C. The latitudinal gradient in geographical range - how so many species coexist in the tropics. Am. Nat. 1989, 133:240-256.
143. Stillman R.A., Goss-Custard J.D., Alexander M.J. Predator search pattern and the strength of interference through prey depression. Behav. Ecol. 2000, 11:597-605.
144. Suzuki S., Kuroda S., Nishihara T. Tool-set for termite-fishing by chimpanzees in the Ndoki forest, Congo. Behaviour 1995, 132:219-234.
145. Symington M.M. Fission-fusion social organization in Ateles and Pan. Int. J. Primatol. 1990, 11:47-61.
146. Teaford M.F., Ungar P.S. Diet and the evolution of the earliest human ancestors. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 2000, 97:13506-13511.
147. Teaford M.F., Ungar P.S., Grine F.E. Paleontological evidence for the diets of African Plio-Pleistocene hominins with special reference to early Homo. Human Diet: Its Origin and Evolution 2002, 143-166. Bergin and Garvey, Westport. P.S. Ungar (Ed.).
148. Teichroeb J.A., Sicotte P. Test of the ecological-constraints model on ursine colobus monkeys (Colobus vellerosus) in Ghana. Am. J. Primatol 2009, 71:49-59.
149. Templeton A.R. Out of Africa again and again. Nature 2002, 416:45-51.
150. Templeton J.J., Giraldeau L.A. Public information cues affect the scrounging decisions of starlings. Anim. Behav. 1995, 49:1617-1626.
151. Templeton J.J., Giraldeau L.A. Vicarious sampling: the use of personal and public information by starlings foraging in a simple patchy environment. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1996, 38:105-114.
152. Tindale N.B. Aboriginal Tribes of Australia 1974, University of California Press, Los Angeles.
153. Tzedakis P.C., Hughen K.A., Cacho I., Harvati K. Placing late Neanderthals in a climatic context. Nature 2007, 449:206-208.
154. Ungar P. Dental allometry, morphology, and wear as evidence for diet in fossil primates. Evol. Anthropol. 1998, 6:205-217.
155. Ungar P. Dental topography and diets of Australopithecus afarensis and early Homo. J.Hum. Evol. 2004, 46:605-622.
156. van Schaik C.P., Dunbar R.I.M. The evolution of monogamy in large primates: a new hypothesis and some crucial tests. Behaviour 1990, 115:30-62.
157. Vine I. Detection of prey flocks by predators. J.Theoret. Biol. 1973, 40:207-210.
158. Wallace A.R. Natural Selection and Tropical Nature: Essays on Descriptive and Theoretical Biology 1891, Macmillan and Company, London.
159. Wallace R.B. The influence of feeding patch size and relative fruit density on the foraging behavior of the black spider monkey Ateles chamek. Biotropica 2008, 40:501-506.
160. Wang W.J., Crompton R.H., Li Y., Gunther M.M. Energy transformation during erect and 'bent-hip, bent-knee' walking by humans with implications for the evolution of bipedalism. J.Hum. Evol. 2003, 44:563-579.
161. Wang W.J., Crompton R.H., Carey T.S., Gunther M.M., Li Y., Savage R., Sellers W.I. Comparison of inverse-dynamics musculo-skeletal models of AL 288-1 Australopithecus afarensis and KNM-WT 15000 Homo ergaster to modern humans, with implications for the evolution of bipedalism. J.Hum. Evol. 2004, 47:453-478.
162. Waser P.M. Cercocebus albigena: site attachment, avoidance, and intergroup spacing. Am. Nat. 1976, 110:911-935.
163. Waser P.M. Primate polyspecific associations: do they occur by chance?. Anim. Behav. 1982, 30:1-8.
164. Whallon R. Social networks and information: non-'utilitarian' mobility among hunter-gatherers. J.Anthropol. Archaeol. 2006, 25:259-270.
165. Wiley R.H. Lekking in birds and mammals: behavioral and evolutionary issues. Adv. Stud. Behav. 1991, 20:201-291.
166. Williams B.J. AModel of Band Society 1974, vol. 29. Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology, Washington, D.C.
167. Willig M.R., Kaufman D.M., Stevens R.D. Latitudinal gradients of biodiversity: pattern, process, scale, and synthesis. A.Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2003, 34:273-309.
168. Wrangham R.W., Gittleman J.L., Chapman C.A. Constraints on group size in primates and carnivores: population density and day range as assays of exploitation competition. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1993, 32:199-209.
169. Yellen J. Archaeological Approaches to the Present - Models for Reconstructing the Past 1977, Academic Press, New York.
170. Yellen J., Harpending H. Hunter-gatherer populations and archaeological inference. World Archaeol. 1972, 4:244-253.
171. Zhou W.X., Sornette D., Hill R.A., Dunbar R.I.M. Discrete hierarchical organization of social group sizes. Proc. Roy. Soc. B 2005, 272:439-444.