Towards a European criminal code?

European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice

Volumn 4, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 2-17

  Cadoppi, A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TRENTO   (Italy)

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EID: 84856428815     PISSN: 09289569     EISSN: 15718174     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/157181796X00104     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Dottore di ricerca in diritto penale, Rome, 1988; Associate Professor of Criminal Law, Facully of Law, University of Trento, Italy.
2. I must thank Celia Wells and Peter Alldridge of the University of Wales for their help in the preparation of the final draft of this paper. An earlier draft of it was presented in Cardiff at the Annual Conference of the Society of Publlc Teacherr of Law, in the section devoted to Criminad Justice, on 13 Septembee 1995.
3. In the Italian literature see A. Pagliaro, 'Limiti all'unificazione del diritto penale europeo' Rivista trimestrale di diritto penale dell'economia (1993) p.204.
4. See J.J. Hesse, ed., Federalizing Europe? (Oxford, 1995)
5. See, in respect of sentencing, Council of Europe, 'Consistency in Sentencing: Recommendation to Member States and Explanatory Memorandum', 4 Criminal Law Forum (1993) 355. The problem of cultural differences, which could involve the need for different laws for different European countries, will be considered below.
6. Cf., for a discussion of some probtems relating to the Amerncan system, W.R. LaFave and A.W. Scottt Handbook on Criminal Law (St. Paull Minn. 1972) pp.112 ff.
7. See generalll B. Fisse, Howard's Criminal Law, V ed. (Sydney 1990)
8. Cf. E. Colvin, 'Chapter Seven - Interpretation of Criminal Legislation and Codes' in J.A. Riordan, gen. ed., The Laws of Australia
9. B. Fisse, Title ed., Criminal Law Principles
10. R. Harding, coord. The Criminal Laws (Sydney 1993) p.131.
11. See G. Scottt 'A Model Criminal Code', 16 Criminal Law Journal (1992) pp.350-352;
12. M. Goode, 'Codification of the Australian Criminal Law', 16 Criminal Law Journal (1992) pp.5-19.
13. Recently the general part of the Model Criminal Code was turned into a Bill: Criminal Code Bill 1994 (The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia - Senate).
14. Provincee can only create quasi-criminal offences: cf. E. Colvin, Principles of Criminal Law, II ed. (Canada 1991) pp.3-15.
15. See, e.g., my notes 'Colpevolezzz e principi costituzionali: le recentt "coraggiose avventure" della Corte suprema canadese' Il Foro Italiano (1989), IV, c.250;
16. 'Colpevolezzz e principi costituzionali: la Corte suprema canadese "colpisce ancora" ', Il Foro ltaliano (1992), IV, c.456.
17. See P.W. Ferguson, 'Jurisdiction and Criminal Law in Scotland and England' in R.F. Hunter, Justice and Crime (1993) p.117.
18. See H.G. Sevenster, 'Criminal Law and EC Law', Common Market Law Review (1992) pp.29-70;
19. and, about to be publishedd A. Bernardi, Comunitarizzazione del diritto e codificazione penale. It is not possible in this paper to deal with this question of the 'Europeanization' of the criminal law, that is becoming a reality particularly in respect of some special areas (protection of economic interestt of the EC, organizei crime, drug trafficking, etc.), and even more after Maastricht and Schengen.
20. Among many others, one German author has shown, at the beginning of this century, the importancc of the congruence between legal norms (and particularly criminal law ones) and the morality of the community: M.E. Mayer, Rechtsnormen und Kulturnormen (Breslau 1903)
21. See A. Pagliaro, loc.cit., pp.202-2033
22. For a comparative study focused on the differences between Italian and Anglo-American criminal laws in this respect see E. Grande, Accordo criminoso e conspiracy (Padova 1993) p.190 ff.
23. On the specific point discussed in the text above see id., 'Dissociazione dei formantt e diritto penale: analisi di un chiasmo' in P. Cendon, ed., Scritti in onore di Rodolfo Sacco, Vol. II (Milano, 1994), pp.593 ff.
24. See, for the latest developments of the law on buggery in England, Card, Cross and Jones, Criminal Law, XIII ed. (London, Dublin, Edinburgh, 1995) pp.249-252.
25. In four volumess Harm to Others (New York-Oxford, 1984)
26. Offenss to Others (New York-Oxford, 1985)
27. Harm to Self (New York-Oxford, 1986)
28. Harmless Wrongdoing (New York-Oxford, 1988).
29. In Italy see, e.g., G. Fiandaca, Problematica dell'osceno e tutela del buon costume (Padova, 1984)
30. At least it is now commonly recognized that consensuaa homicide should be punished less severely than non consensuaa homicide, while the laws have developed very differently in the various European countries. See generally on the problem of euthanasia, with some comparative law contributions, L. Stortoni, ed., Vivere: diritto o dovere? (Trento, 1992).
31. For example the Netherlands, where euthanasia has been recentty allowed, subject to certain reqirements. See, in Italian, S. Vinciguerra and A. Ricci Ascoli, 'La giurisprudenza olandess in tema di eutanasia attiva', Diritto penale e processo (1995) p. 1012.
32. See J. Andenaes, Punishment and Deterrence (Ann Arbor, 1974)
33. I do not want to say that there are no reasons in favour of a separated system of criminal law in Scotland. But my opinion is that the two systems are not so inherently different to be impossible to harmonize or even unify. The Scots' pride for their own separated legal system has to be taken seriously, but nevertheless a unified criminal law and justice system would probably be more suitable to a unified country like the UK. I dealt with Scotttsh criminal law in comparison with the Italian and with the English criminal laws with my colleague dr. prof. Alexandee McCall Smith in the book Introduzione allo Studio del Diritto Penale Scozzese (Padova, 1995). It is probably worth remembering that Lord Bacon workcd on the possible unification of the laws of England and Scotland: F. Bacon, 'A Preparation toward the Union of the Laws of England and Scotland'; in The Works of Francis Bacon Baron of Verulam, Vol. IV (ed. London, 1824) pp.287 ff., devoted in particular to the criminal law.
34. The death penalty was very rarely carried out in practtce even in the other Itallan regionss see M. Da Passano, 'La penadi morte nel Regno d'Italia (1859-1889)', in S. Vinciguerra, ed., Diritto pénale dell'Ottocento. I codici preunitari e il codice Zanardelli (Padova, 1993) pp.579-651.
35. This is why, for example, Scottish and English criminal law tend to remain more diverse than Scotttsh and Engllsh civil law: only in the field of criminai law the highest court for Scotland is a Scottish one (the High Court of Justiciary)) in the field of civil law the highest court for Scotland is the House of Lords. See on this point L. Farmerr '"The Genius of Our Law⋯": Criminal Law and the Scotttsh Legal Tradition', 55 Modern Law Rev. (1992) p.25, who argues that Scottish criminal law is less 'statutorizedd than Engllsh criminal law in order to give more power of intervention to the High Court of Justiciary and to preserve as much as possible the 'Scottishness' of Scots criminal law.
36. Cf. 'Le discordanzz delle Corti di Cassazione in materia penale', 29 Rivista penale (1889) pp.136 ff.
37. The answers given to this question vary: for the negattve, but almost thirty years ago, G. Bettiol, 'Sull'unificazione del diritto penale europeo' in Prospettive per un diritto penale europeo (Padovaa 1968) p.6;
38. for the positive, A. Pagliaro. op. cit., pp.200 ff.
39. See also P. Nuvolonce 'Problematica dell'unificazione del diritto penale dei paesi europei', Trent'anni di diritto e procedura penale, Vol. II (Padova, 1969) p.1518.
40. On his life and carreer see J.M. Ganado, 'Sir Ignazio Gavino Bonavita', 1 The Law Journal (Malta), No.5, p.19.
41. I.G. Bonavita, Ricordi ossiano notizie de' fatti concernentt l'origine, il progresso e la terminazione delia reda7ione delle Leggi Criminall promulgate per Malta nel 1854 e di alcune circostanze aventivi relazione che mi riguardano personalmente, 1857.
42. On the history of the Criminal Code for Malta see also the comprehensive but unfinishee research published by A. Ganado, "The historical Development of the Criminal Code', 2 The Law Journal (Malta) No.4, p.211; No.5, p.258: No.6, p.355.
43. Report on the Proposec Code of Criminal Laws for the Island of Malta and its Dependencies (Government Press, Malta))
44. See J.F. Stephen. A History of the Criminal Law of England, Vol. III (London, 1883) pp.347 ff.
45. On its history see especially R.S. O'Regann 'Sir Samuel Griffith's Criminal Code', 7 Australian Bar Rev. (1991) pp.141 ff.
46. S.W. Griffith, Explanatory Letter to the Honourabll Attorney-General, 29 October 1897
47. in Id., Draft of a Code of Criminal law, Prepared for the Government of Quuensland (Brisbanee 1897) (C.A. 89-1897) p.VII. Very recentty a new Criminal Code has been enacted in Queensland (Criminal Code Act 1994, Act No. 37 of 1995)) after almost one hundred years. But it retains many of the provisionn of Griffith's Code.
48. See the very interesting research published by R.S. O'Regan, 'The Migration of the Griffith Code' in R.S. O'Regan, New Essays on the Australian Criminal Codes (Sydney, 1988) pp.103 ff.
49. Other examples in E. Colvin, Ch. 7 & 8, in J.A. Riordan, ed., The Laws of Australia
50. B. Fisse, ed., 9. Criminal Law Principles
51. R. Harding, ed., The Criminal Laws (ed. R. Harding) (Melbourne, 1993) 131: Colvin is particularly critical in respect of the problems posed by the coexistencc of the Griffith Code and its peculiar principles with the common law.
52. That a Criminal Code like Griffith's is very useful in assuring the survival of important criminal law principles has been argued some time ago by C. Howard, 'The Protection of Principle Under a Criminal Code', 25 Modern Law Rev. (1962) pp. 189 ff.
53. See R. Sacco, Introduzione al diritto comparalo, IV ed. (Torino, 1990) p.155.
54. The notion of cryptotyps was borrowed from Prof. Sacco from B.L. Whorf, Language Thought and Reality (Cambridge Mass. 1956))
55. On this problem see A. Cadoppi, ed., Ornnis definitio in iure periculosa? Il problena delle definizioni legali nel diritto penale (Padova, 1995) with essays by criminal lawyers from various European countries.
56. Recentty in Italy a textbook devoted to the comparison of the English and the Italian criminal law (in the area of the general part) has been publlshed: S. Vinciguerra, Imroduzione allo studio del diritto penale inglesee I principi (Padova, 1992)
57. It is true that the principle nulluni crimen nulla poena sine lege has very different backgrounds in common law countries and in civil law countries, but in recent times the differencee are gradualll fading away. While in England (and generalll in the common law world) the statutory law is growing and common law crimes are fewer and fewer, in Italy the judiciary seems slowly to be more inclined to play a creattve role in shaping the 'law in action'. This tends to mitigatt the differences between English and Italian criminal law in this respectt This is true even if one compares Scottish criminal law with Italian criminal law, notwithstanding the peculiar reluctancc of the Scottish criminal law system to accept the nullum crimen principle: see my 'La genesi delle fattispecie penalli Una comparazione tra civil law e common law', in G. Fiandacaa ed., Diritto penale in transizione (Padova, 1996))
58. The issue cannot be discussed in detail here. For referencee see my 'Mens rea', 7 Digesto delle discipline penalislichee IV ed. (Torino, 1992) p.618.
59. See A. Pagliaro, loc.cit., pp.200 ff. More generally, at a European levell see A. Bemardi, '"Principi di diritto" e diritto penaie europeo' Annali Università di Ferrara (1988) p.75;
60. G. Grasso, Comunità europee e diritto penale (Milano, 1989) p.89.
61. See A. Cadoppi, 'Recent Developments in Italian Constitutional-Criminal Law', 28 Alberta Law Rev. (1990) pp.427 ff.
62. On these developments of English criminal law (and of the criminal law of other common law jurisdictions), see, in Italy, my 'Dalla judge-made law al Criminal Code', Rivista italiana di diritto e procedura penale (1992) pp. 923 if.
63. LawComm. No. 177, A Criminal Code for England and Wales (London, 1989)
64. In Scotland there is no such draft code nor do the Scottish lawyerr seem to be in favour of a codification of the criminal law: C.G.B. Nicholson, 'Codification of Scots Law: A Way Ahead, or a Blind Alley?', Statute Law Rev. (1987) pp.183 ff. Nevertheless, even north of the Tweed some scholars seem to be more inclined to the adoption of a crimina3 code and something is about to be done for that purpose (I owe this information to A. McCall Smith)) Finally, in a future European Federation the main reasons for the refusal of a codification of Scots criminal law would probably be less forceful than now.
65. The task of drafting a Model Penal Code for Europe was considered in the early 1970s by the Council of Europe, but without any result: see H. Sevenster, loc.cit., p.38; C.J. Enschedé, Een uniform Europees Strafrecht (Amhcm, 1990).
66. Many authors have stressed the importancc of a basic harmonization of the different European criminal laws, even the ones who strongly oppose tje total unification of them: see e.g. J. Pradell Droit pinal compare (Paris, 1995)
67. See Criminal Code Bill 1994 (The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australla - The Senate), and the annexed Explanatory Memorandum. On the Australian Model Criminal Code see the authors cited at footnote 9.
68. Another Standard Penal Code (codigo penal tipo) was framed in Latin America between 1963 and 1979 (the project is yet unfinished, but the general pan was completed in 1971): see H. Dahll 'The Influence and Appllcation of the Standard Penal Code for Latin America' 17 Am J. Crim. Law (1990) pp.235 ff.
69. But one can find instances of Model Penal Codes way back in the history of the criminal law: Colonial criminal codes have been framed following various Model Penal Codes, the first being Wrightts Draft Code for Jamaica (drafted in the early 1870s publishee in 1877)) the second (not very fortunate) H.L. Stephen" Code, drafted for the Colonial Office in 1901 (on these two codes see M.L. Friedland, 'R.S. Wright's Model Criminal Code', I Oxford Journ. Legal Studies (1981) pp.307 ff.);
70. the third A. Erhardtts Model Penal Code (drafted in 1925: see H.F. Morris, 'A History of the Adoptton of Codes of Criminal Law and Procedurr in British Colonial Africa, 1876-935', Journ. African Law (1974) p.15) Other codes (or draft codes)have been very influential in the history of the codification of the criminal law, even though they were originally not framed as Model Criminal Codes: one could mentton, in respect of common law countries, Macauley Indian Penal Code (1137, adopted in 1860); J.F. Stephen's Draft Code (drafted in 1878, and revised by a Royal Commission in 1879)) and Griffith's Queensland Criminal Code (drafted in 1897 and adopted in 1899)) In respect of civil law countries the French Code pénal of 1810, the Italian Zanardelli Code of 1889; and more recently the German Strafgesetzbuch as modified in 1975. Those codes can probably be considered as de facto Model Penal Codes" It is because of them as well that many criminal law principles and institutes are similar or at least comparabll in various countries throughouu the world.
71. See Ley Organica del Codigo Penal, 8 Novembee 1995.
72. Schema di delega legislativa per l'emanazione di un nuovo codice penale, Documentt giustizia (No.3, 1992)) It was drafted by a commission of professorr of criminal law (A. Pagliaro, F. Bricola, F. Mantovani, T. Padovani, A.R. Latagliatat A. Fiorella) appointed by professor G. Vassalli, then Minister of Justice.
73. Senato della Repubblica, XII legislature: Disegno di legge No. 2038, Libro primo del codice penale (2 August 1995)