Residential segregation from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century: Evidence from the Netherlands

Journal of Interdisciplinary History

Volumn 42, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 333-369

  Lesger, Clé ^a   Van Leeuwen, Marco H D ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; DEMOGRAPHY; ECONOMICS; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY; HOUSING; LEGAL ASPECT; MIGRATION; NETHERLANDS; NOISE; ODOR; POPULATION DYNAMICS; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIOECONOMICS;

ECONOMICS; HISTORY, 16TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HOUSING; NETHERLANDS; NOISE; ODORS; POPULATION DYNAMICS; PREJUDICE; RESIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS; RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 84856370110     PISSN: 00221953     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/JINH_a_00254     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. See David Ward, "Environs and Neighbours in the 'Two Nations,' Residential Differentiation in Mid-Nineteenth-Century Leeds," Journal of Historical Geography, VI (1980), 133-162
2. Richard Dennis, English Industrial Cities of the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1984), 191-196, 214
3. For scholars with an optimistic view, see, for example, Frederick W. Boal, "Ethnic Residential Segregation," in David T. Herbert and R. J. Johnston (eds.), Social Areas in Cities (London, 1976), 41-79
4. Gideon Bolt, Robert van Kempen, and Maarten van Ham, "Minority Ethnic Groups in the Dutch Housing Market: Spatial Segregation, Relocation Dynamics and Housing Policy," Urban Studies, XLV (2008), 1359-1384
5. Wenda van der Laan Bouma-Doff, "Involuntary Isolation: Ethnic Preferences and Residential Segregation," Journal of Urban Affairs, XXIX (2007), 289-309
6. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, Mass., 1993)
7. Musterd, Ruimtelijke segregatie en sociale effecten (Assen, 1996)
8. "Social and Ethnic Segregation in Europe: Levels, Causes, and Effects," Journal of Urban Studies, XXVI (2005), 331-348
9. Chris Quispel, "'Amerikaanse toestanden' in Nederland? Het debat over de onderklasse-problematiek," Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis, XXII (1996), 327-347
10. Camille Z. Charles, "The Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation," Annual Review of Sociology, XXIX (2003) 167-207.
11. For historical gis in general, see Onno Boonstra and Anton Schuurman (eds.), Tijd en ruimte: Nieuwe toepassingen van GIS in de alfawetenschappen (Utrecht, 2009) (and the literature cited therein)
12. Ian N. Gregory, A Place in History: A Guide to Using GIS in Historical Research (Belfast, 2005)
13. Anne K. Knowles, "Introduction: Historical GIS: The Spatial Turn in Social Science History," Social Science History, XXIV (2000), 451-470
14. "Emerging Trends in Historical GIS," Historical Geography, XXXIII (2005), 7-13
15. for gis-based historical studies of residential segregation, Jason A. Gilliland, "Modelling Residential Mobility in Montreal, 1860-1900," Historical Methods, XXXI (1998), 27-42
16. Sherry Olson, and Danielle Gavreau, "Did Segregation Increase as the City Expanded? Montreal, 1881-1901," Social Science History (2011, forthcoming)
17. Marlou Schrover and Jelle van Lottum, "Spatial Concentrations and Communities of Immigrants in the Netherlands, 1800-1900," Continuity and Change, XXII (2007), 215-252
18. Research on Belgian and British cities suggests a relationship between the growth and size of a city and its degree of segregation: Dominque Vanneste, De pré-industriële Vlaamse stad: een sociaal-economische survey: Interne differentiatie te Gent en te Kortrijk op het einde van de 18e eeuw (Leuven, 1987), 184
19. Colin G. Pooley, "Choice and Constraint in the Nineteenth-Century City: A Basis for Residential Differentiation," in J. H. Johnson and idem (eds.), The Structure of Nineteenth-Century Cities (London, 1982), 199-234, 202.
20. For background data regarding Alkmaar, see Willem van den Berg, van Leeuwen, and Lesger, "Residentiële segregatie in Hollandse steden: Theorie, methodologie en empirische bevindingen voor Alkmaar en Amsterdam, 16e-19e eeuw," Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis, XXIV (1998), 402-436
21. for Delft, Lesger, van Leeuwen, and George Buzing, "Residentiële segregatie in Delft: Een verkenning van ruimtelijke patronen in 1832," in Boonstra and Schuurman (eds.), Tijd en ruimte, 52-61.
22. For helpful nineteenth-century studies, see Vanneste, De pré-industriële Vlaamse stad
23. Pooley, "Choice and Constraint."
24. For early modern studies, see Elizabeth Baigent, "Assessed Taxes as Sources for the Study of Urban Wealth: Bristol in the Later Eighteenth Century," Urban History Yearbook (1988), 31-48
25. Emrys Jones, "London in the Early Seventeenth Century: An Ecological Approach," London Journal, VI (1980), 123-133
26. John Langton, "Residential Patterns In Pre-Industrial Cities: Some Case Studies from Seventeenth-Century Britain," Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, LXV (1975) 1-27 (on Exeter, Dublin, and Newcastle)
27. Leonard D. Schwarz, "Social Class and Social Geography: The Middle Classes in London at the End of the Eighteenth Century," Social History, VII (1982) 167-185
28. Jean-Pierre Bardet, Rouen aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles: Les mutations d"un espace social (Paris, 1983), 2 v
29. G. Désert, "Immigration et ségregation á Caen," in Maurice Garden and Yves Lequin (eds.), Habiter la ville, xve-xxe siècle (Lyon, 1984), 175-191
30. Pierre Deyon, Amiens, capital provincial: Etude sur la société urbaine au XVIIe siècle (Paris, 1967)
31. Garden, Lyon et les Lyonnais au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1970)
32. Hugues Neveux, "Economische transformatie en sociale segregatie: Het voorbeeld van een Normandische stad: Caen in de 17e eeuw," Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis, XCIV (1981), 205-220
33. B. Bennassar, Valladolid au siècle d'or: Une ville de Castile et sa campagne au XVIe siècle (Paris, 1967)
34. Linda Martz, Poverty and Welfare in Habsburg Spain: The Example of Toledo (New York, 1983)
35. Etienne François, "Unterschichten und Armut in rheinischen Residenzstädten des 18. Jahrhunderts," Vierteljahrschrift für Sozial und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, LXII (1975), 433-464 (on Koblenz)
36. Johan Söderberg, Ulf Jonsson, and Christer Persson, A Stagnating Metropolis: The Economy and Demography of Stockholm, 1750-1850 (New York, 1991)
37. Jones, "London in the Early Seventeenth Century," 126
38. Schwarz, "Social Class and Social Geography," 178
39. Langton, "Residential Patterns," 21
40. Baigent, "Assessed Taxes."
41. Bardet, Rouen, I, 237-241 (quotation on 241 [our translation]); II, 57, 95-124
42. Deyon, Amiens, capital provinciale, 247-252, 484, 543, 566 (quotation on 358 [our translation])
43. Neveux, "Economische transformatie en sociale segregatie"
44. Désert, "Immigration et ségregation á Caen."
45. Garden, Lyon et les Lyonnais, 204-210, 690-701
46. Martz, Poverty and Welfare in Habsburg Spain, 101-106, 134
47. Bennassar, Valladolid au siècle d'or, 439
48. François, "Unterschichten und Armut," 439-441
49. Söderberg, Jonsson, and Persson, Stagnating Metropolis, 93-122
50. Gideon Sjoberg, The Pre-Industrial City, Past and Present (New York, 1960), 11,183
51. See also Langton, "Residential Patterns," for a summary and a comparison with the ideas of James E. Vance, Jr.
52. Vance, "Land Assignment in the Pre-Capitalist, Capitalist and Post-Capitalist City," Economic Geography, XLVII (1971), 101-120, 115-116 (quotation on 105). Vance does not cite Sjoberg.
53. See also Langton, "Residential Patterns."
54. Vance, "Land Assignment," 107, 111-113
55. For rental prices, see Lesger, Huur en conjunctuur: De woningmarkt in Amsterdam, 1550-1850 (Amsterdam, 1986)
56. Lesger, Van Leeuwen, and Buzing, "Residentiële segregatie in Delft."
57. See also F. Keverling Buisman and E. Muller, "Kadaster-Gids": Gids voor de raadpleging van hypothecaire en kadastrale archieven uit de 19e en de eerste helft van de 20e eeuw (The Hague, 1979)
58. Op goede gronden: Een bundel opstellen ter gelegenheid van het 150-jarige bestaan van de dienst van het Kadaster en de Openbare Registers (Dienst van het Kadaster en de Openbare Registers) (The Hague,1982)
59. Public buildings and publicly run almshouses were tax-exempt. Van den Berg and Buzing graciously offered digital files for Alkmaar and Delft, respectively, and helped with their interpretation. The original registers and maps for Alkmaar are located at the Rijksarchief Noord-Holland (North Holland Public Records Office) in Haarlem, and for Delft at the Nationaal Archief (National Archive) in The Hague.
60. The gis program MapInfo was used to present and analyze the material. A block did not represent the smallest division wherever it was divided by a lane or alley without property en trances and wherever multiple noncontinuous plots (mostly business buildings) were combined into a single block.
61. The rental value of housing in Amsterdam varied significantly over time (Lesger, Huur en conjunctuur, 181-182 [graphs 1 and 2])
62. See the Nationaal Archief, Financie Holland, inv.nr. 515, for the Alkmaar register and inv.nr. 492, for Delft. In cases without a rental contract because the resident was also the owner, we estimated rental value to serve as a base for the tax. In shared housing, rental value was usually reported for each individual residence within a property.
63. For a reasonable idea of rental amounts, see also van den Berg and Jan Luiten van Zanden, "Vier eeuwen welstandsongelijkheid in Alkmaar, ca 1530-1930," Tijdschrift voor Sociale Geschiedenis, XX (1993), 193-215, 207-208
64. The four neighborhoods into which Alkmaar was then divided reported almost identical amounts of verponding tax in 1632, 1718, and 1730 (just before the readjustment)
65. The final sentence is an overestimate. However, an analysis of the situation in 1632 with the extreme assumption that none of these buildings was used as housing made little observable difference in the maps.
66. We are grateful to the JIH referee for a concise formulation of this issue
67. Among the requirements for inclusion was the condition that half of the lots within a block be made up of residences. The blocks in the northwestern corner were largely occupied by a horse market, stables, and roperies. The city carpenter's yard was in the southeastern corner of Alkmaar.
68. There is sufficient relevant information available for 250 of the 332 block faces into which Alkmaar is divided
69. Again, certain blocks and block faces did not qualify for the analysis because of the prominence of social-service institutions and commercial spaces
70. Population numbers for Delft in the early modern period come from Thera Wijsenbeek-Olthuis, Achter de gevels van Delft: Bezit en bestaan van rijk en arm in een periode van achteruitgang (1700-1800) (Hilversum, 1987), 27 (Table 1.1), and for Delft in the nineteenth century from M. Claessens and R. F. Wybrands Marcussen, Kadastrale Atlas Delft (Utrecht, 1998), 17-18.
71. For a comparison with population numbers of other towns in Holland, see Ad M. van der Woude, Het Noorderkwartier: Een regionaal historisch onderzoek in de demografische en economische geschiedenis van westelijk Nederland van de late middeleeuwen tot het begin van de negentiende eeuw (Utrecht, 1983; orig. pub. 1972), 114 (Table 2.22).
72. For an extensive treatment of the economic, social, and political developments in nineteenth-century Delft, see Johan A. de Jonge, "Delft in de negentiende eeuw: Van 'stille nette' plaats tot centrum van industrie: Enkele facetten van de omslag in een locale sociaal-economische evolutie," Economisch- en Sociaal-Historisch Jaarboek, XXXVII (1974),145-247 (for the impression of Delft as a sleepy town, 239).
73. A minimum of three distinct divisions per block face was required for inclusion on the map
74. According to some scholars, many early modern cities were "walking cities" only; the lack of cheap and efficient transport severely limited the distances that people were able and willing to travel. Because the middle and lower classes were dependent on the rich for work, and the rich were dependent on the services and consumer goods that the middle and lower classes provided, the mixing of social classes was inevitable.
75. Notwithstanding Sjoberg's relatively simple concentric model, the city's sociospatial structure was not always solely determined by an exclusive political-religious elite. In the eastern part of Alkmaar, economic considerations influenced the locational decisions of the wellto-do, manifested in the geographical structure of the city.
76. See van der Woude, "De contractiefase van de seculaire trend in het Noorderkwartier nader beschouwd," Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden (1988), 373-398
77. van Zanden, "De economie van Holland in de periode 1650-1805: groei of achteruitgang? Een overzicht van bronnen, problemen en resultaten," Bijdragen en Mededelingen betreffende de Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, CII (1987) 562-609
78. Piet Boon, Bouwers van de zee: zeevarenden van het Westfriese platteland, c.1680-1720 (The Hague, 1996)
79. Lesger, Hoorn als stedelijk knooppunt: Stedensystemen tijdens de late middeleeuwen en vroegmoderne tijd (Hilversum, 1990), 122-177
80. The number of positions in the bureaucracy was calculated on the basis of Jos C. N. Raadschelders, Plaatselijke bestuurlijke ontwikkelingen 1600-1980: een historisch-bestuurskundig onderzoek in vier Noord-Hollandse gemeenten 1600-1980 (The Hague, 1990), 295 (Table 2).
81. Van Leeuwen and James E. Oeppen, "Reconstructing the Demographic Regime of Amsterdam 1681-1920," Economic and Social History in the Netherlands, V (1993), 61-102.
82. Lesger, The Rise of the Amsterdam Market and Information Exchange: Merchants, Commercial Expansion and Change in the Spatial Economy of the Low Countries, c.1550-1630 (Aldershot, 2006), 243-249.
83. Boudewijn Bakker, "De zichtbare stad 1578-1813," in Willem Frijhoff and Maarten Prak (eds.), Geschiedenis van Amsterdam: Centrum van de wereld 1578-1650 (Amsterdam, 2004), 17-101, 28-30, 36-37
84. Jaap Evert Abrahamse, De grote uitleg van Amsterdam: Stadsontwikkeling in de zeventiende eeuw (Bussum, 2010), 246-248
85. S. A. C. Dudok van Heel, "Regent Families and Urban Development in Amsterdam," in Peter van Kessel and Elisja Schulte (eds.), Rome-Amsterdam: Two growing Cities in Seventeenth-Century Europe (Amsterdam, 1997) 124-145.
86. The most important and recent work about the expansions in seventeenth-century Amsterdam is Abrahamse, De grote uitleg van Amsterdam
87. For more on the third expansion, see Lenna Jansen, "De derde vergroting van Amsterdam," Jaarboek Amstelodamum, LII (1960), 42-89
88. Ed Taverne, In't land van belofte: in de nieue stadt: Ideaal en werkelijkheid van de stadsuitleg in de Republiek 1580-1680 (Maarssen, 1978), 165-168 (for the ban of 1618)
89. Abrahamse, De grote uitleg van Amsterdam, 62
90. For living conditions, see Willem F. H. Oldewelt (ed.), Kohier van de Personeele Quotisatie te Amsterdam over het jaar 1742 (Amsterdam, 1945).
91. The narrow Kerkstraat is a possible exception to the exclusion of the poor from the canal belt. This street contained the stables and carriage houses belonging to the expensive properties on the canal, but the few beggars in this area lived on the Kerkstraat too.
92. Isabella H. van Eeghen, "Een burgemeestershuis in de Jordaan," Maandblad Amstelodamum, LXII (1975),127-130
93. for Huydecoper and family, Luuc Kooijmans, Vriendschap en de kunst van het overleven in de zeventiende en achttiende eeuw (Amsterdam,1997)
94. For the spatial structure of the Jordaan, see H.Tj. Dijkhuis, "De Jordaan: De ontwikkeling van een volkswijk in een grote stad," Economisch-Historisch Jaarboek, XXI (1940), 1-90
95. for location patterns in the retailing industry, Lesger, "Patterns of Retail Location and Urban Form in Amsterdam in the Eighteenth Century," Urban History, XXXVIII (2011), 24-47
96. Johannes G. Frederiks and Pieter J. Frederiks, Kohier van den tweehonderdsten penning voor Amsterdam en onderhoorige plaatsen over 1631 (Amsterdam, 1890)
97. Lesger, "Migranten in Amsterdam in de achttiende eeuw: Residentiële spreiding en positie in de samenleving," Jaarboek Amstelodamum, LXXXIX (1997), 43-68, Table 2 (47)
98. Exceptions to this predominant pattern of living arrangements included a few large houses on St. Antoniesbreestraat (the house of Isaac de Pinto) and on Jodenbreestraat, where primarily (upper) middle-class residents lived.
99. Charles, "Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation," 170
100. See also Bolt, Kempen, and Ham, "Minority Ethnic Groups"
101. Milton M. Gordon, Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins (New York, 1964)
102. Massey and Denton, American Apartheid
103. Laan Bouma-Doff, "Involuntary Isolation"
104. Stanley Lieberson, "The Impact of Residential Segregation on Ethnic Assimilation," Social Forces, XL (1961), 52-57
105. John R. Logan and Richard D. Alba, "Locational Returns on Human Capital: Minority Access to Suburban Community Resources," Demography, XXX (1993), 243-267
106. Massey, "Ethnic Residential Segregation: A Theoretical Synthesis and Empirical Review," Sociology and Social Research, LXIX (1985), 315-350
107. For Jewish assimilation and segregation, see, for example, Jacqueline Vijgen, "Joden In Amsterdam: Assimilatie en segregatie van een ethnische minderheid 1600-1933," unpub. M.A. thesis (Univ. of Amsterdam, 1983)
108. Hetty Berg (ed.), De Gelykstaat der Joden: Inburgering van een minderheid (Amsterdam, 1996)
109. van Leeuwen, The Logic of Charity: Amsterdam, 1800-1850 (Houndmills, 2000), 38-39, 44-45, 111-161
110. Charles, "Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation," 170
111. See also Bolt, Kempen, and Ham, "Minority Ethnic Groups"
112. Logan and Alba, "Locational Returns"
113. Laan Bouma-Doff, "Involuntary Isolation."
114. Charles, "Dynamics of Racial Residential Segregation," 182
115. See also Bolt, Kempen, and Ham, "Minority Ethnic Groups"
116. Boal, "Ethnic Residential Segregation," 41-79
117. William A. V. Clark, "Residential Preferences and Neighborhood Racial Segregation: A Test of the Schelling Segregation Model," Demography, XXVIII (1991), 1-19, 451
118. Orlando Patterson, The Ordeal of Integration: Progress and Resentment in America's Racial Crisis (Washington, D.C., 1997)
119. Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York, 1997)
120. Laan Bouma-Doff, "Involuntary Isolation."
121. Tobias van Domselaer, Beschryvinge van Amsterdam, haar eerste oorspronk. .. tot dezen tegenwoordige jare 1665, is voorgevallen (Amsterdam, 1665), III, 254
122. Abrahamse, De grote uitleg van Amsterdam, 106-108
123. Abrahamse, De grote uitleg van Amsterdam, 71-77, 265-267
124. Nor did sixteenth-century Amsterdam witness a transition from a guild-dominated society to one dominated by merchants, as Vance claims. Merchants continued to be incorporated in the oligopoly of ruling families. Guilds never exercised significant, direct political authority, though they controlled the organization of production and secured the welfare of their members.
125. See van Leeuwen, "Guilds and Middle-Class Welfare 1550-1800: Provisions for Burial, Sickness, Old Age, and Widowhood," Economic History Review (forthcoming)