A course unbroken: The constitutional legitimacy of the dormant commerce clause

Virginia Law Review

Volumn 97, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 1877-1938

  Friedman, Barry ^a   Deacon, Daniel T ^a  

^a NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW   (United States)

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EID: 84855886480     PISSN: 00426601     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (224)

1. See United Haulers Ass'n v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Mgmt. Auth., 550 U.S. 330, 338-39 (2007).
2. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 3.
3. Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. State Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 260 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part).
4. United Haulers Ass'n, 550 U.S. at 349 (Thomas, J., concurring) (emphasis added);
5. Accord Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Inc. v. Town of Harrison, 520 U.S. 564, 609-10 (1997) (Thomas, J., dissenting).
6. See David P. Currie, The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The First Hundred Years 1789-1888, at 230-34 (1985)
7. Felix Frankfurter, The Commerce Clause Under Marshall, Taney, and Waite 13 (1937)
8. Julian N. Eule, Laying the Dormant Commerce Clause to Rest, 91 Yale L.J. 425, 430 (1982)
9. Richard D. Friedman, Putting the Dormancy Doctrine Out of Its Misery, 12 Cardozo L. Rev. 1745, 1745 (1991)
10. Lisa Heinzerling, The Commercial Constitution, 1995 Sup. Ct. Rev. 217, 276
11. Amy M. Petragnani, The Dormant Commerce Clause: On Its Last Leg, 57 Alb. L. Rev. 1215, 1216 (1994)
12. Martin H. Redish & Shane V. Nugent, The Dormant Commerce Clause and the Constitutional Balance of Federalism, 1987 Duke L.J. 569, 571
13. See McCarroll v. Dixie Greyhound Lines, Inc., 309 U.S. 176, 189 (1940) (Black, J., dissenting);
14. Smith v. Turner (The Passenger Cases), 48 U.S. (7 How.) 283, 471 (1849) (Taney, C.J., dissenting)
15. Justice Thomas, however, is engaging in hyperbole- to say the least-when he writes that "every Member of the current Court and a goodly number of our predecessors have at least recognized these problems, if not been troubled by them." Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 611 (Thomas, J., dissenting).
16. See The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) at 471 (Taney, C.J., dissenting);
17. Thurlow v. Massachussetts (The License Cases), 46 U.S. (5 How.) 504, 579-80 (1847) (Taney, C.J., separate opinion);
18. United Haulers Ass'n, 550 U.S. at 349 (Thomas, J., concurring).
19. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 612 (Thomas, J., dissenting)
20. Quoting Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S. 37, 44 (1971));
21. 441 U.S. 322, 325-26 (1979).
22. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 571.
23. Quoting Freeman v. Hewit, 329 U.S. 249, 252 (1946)).
24. See Norman R. Williams, The Foundations of the American Common Market, 84 Notre Dame L. Rev. 409, 411 (2008)
25. See Brannon P. Denning, Confederation-Era Discrimination Against Interstate Commerce and the Legitimacy of the Dormant Commerce Clause Doctrine, 94 Ky. L.J. 37, 39-40 (2005) [hereinafter Denning, Discrimination];
26. Brannon P. Denning, Reconstructing the Dormant Commerce Clause Doctrine, 50 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 417, 423-24 (2008) [hereinafter Denning, Reconstructing];
27. see also Richard B. Collins, Economic Union as a Constitutional Value, 63 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 43, 44 (1988)
28. See Mark V. Tushnet, Scalia and the Dormant Commerce Clause: A Foolish Formalism?, 12 Cardozo L. Rev. 1717, 1718-20 (1991). Norman Williams has located the source of the doctrine in early cases.
29. See Norman R. Williams, Gibbons, 79 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1398, 1398-99 (2004) [hereinafter Williams, Gibbons];
30. Norman R. Williams, The Commerce Clause and the Myth of Dual Federalism, 54 UCLA L. Rev. 1847, 1851-52 (2007) [hereinafter Williams, Dual Federalism].
31. See, e.g., Earl M. Maltz, How Much Regulation Is Too Much-An Examination of Commerce Clause Jurisprudence, 50 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 47, 64-65 (1981);
32. Donald H. Regan, The Supreme Court and State Protectionism: Making Sense of the Dormant Commerce Clause, 84 Mich. L. Rev. 1091, 1092-93 (1986);
33. Maxwell L. Stearns, A Beautiful Mend: A Game Theoretical Analysis of the Dormant Commerce Clause Doctrine, 45 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 1, 11 (2003).
34. See, e.g., Brest et al., Processes of Constitutional Decisionmaking 730 (5th ed. 2006)
35. Henry P. Monaghan, Forward: Constitutional Common Law, 89 Harv. L. Rev. 1, 15-17 (1975)
36. Barry Friedman & Scott B. Smith, The Sedimentary Constitution, 147 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1, 5-6 (1998).
37. James Madison, Vices of the Political System of the United States, in James Madison: Writings 69, 70-71 (Jack N. Rakove ed., 1999) [hereinafter Madison, Writings].
38. See, e.g., Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787, at 405-06 (1969);
39. see also Barry Friedman, The Will of the People: How Public Opinion Has Influenced the Supreme Court and Shaped the Meaning of the Constitution 23- 25 (2009)
40. Cathy D. Matson & Peter S. Onuf, A Union of Interests: Political and Economic Thought in Revolutionary America 51 (1990)
41. Jack N. Rakove, Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution 29-30 (1996)
42. The Federalist No. 22, at 104 (Alexander Hamilton) (Buccaneer Books 1992).
43. Reacting to the work of John Fiske, whom Charles Beard claimed wrote "without fear and without research," Merrill Jensen, The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation, 1781-1789, at xii (1950)
44. See John Fiske, The Critical Period in American History: 1783-1789, at 67 (Boston & New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Company 1888)
45. Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775-1815, at 46 (1962).
46. Albert Anthony Giesecke, American Commercial Legislation Prior to 1789, at 126-27 (1910).
47. Letter from James Madison to Thomas Jefferson (Aug. 12, 1786), in 9 The Papers of James Madison 95 (Robert A. Rutland et al. eds., Univ. of Chi. Press 1975) [hereinafter Madison Papers].
48. 2 The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, at 360 (Max Farrand ed., rev. ed. 1937) [hereinafter Records].
49. 2 The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution 80-81 (Jonathan Elliot ed., Washington 1836) [hereinafter Elliot Debates].
50. For an exhaustive treatment of the international context of the American Constitution, see David Golove & Daniel J. Hulsebosch, A Civilized Nation: The Early American Constitution, the Law of Nations, and the Pursuit of International Recognition, 85 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 932 (2010).
51. See Saul Cornell, Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788-1828, at 63-64 (1999).
52. Letters from the Federal Farmer No. 6 (Dec. 25, 1787), reprinted in Richard Henry Lee, An Additional Number of Letters from the Federal Farmer to the Republican 50 (Quadrangle Books, Inc. 1962) (1788).
53. See The Address and Reasons of Dissent of the Minority of the Convention of Pennsylvania to Their Constituents (Dec. 12, 1787), in 2 The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution 618, 619 (Merrill Jensen et al. eds., 1976) [hereinafter Documentary History]
54. Centinel VI, Pa. Packet (Dec. 25, 1787), reprinted in 15 The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution 98, 99 (John P. Kaminski et al. eds., 1984)
55. See Albert S. Abel, The Commerce Clause in the Constitutional Convention and in Contemporary Comment, 25 Minn. L. Rev. 432, 443-44 (1941).
56. James Madison, Notes of Ancient and Modern Confederacies, in 1 Letters and Other Writings of James Madison 293 (New York, R. Worthington 1884).
57. See David C. Hendrickson, Peace Pact: The Lost World of the American Founding 7 (2003).
58. See Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 260 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part)
59. Quoting Bos. Stock Exch. v. State Tax Comm'n, 429 U.S. 381, 328 (1977)));
60. 550 U.S. 330, 349 (2007) (Thomas, J., concurring).
61. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 3.
62. United Haulers Ass'n, 550 U.S. at 349 (Thomas, J., concurring).
63. Madison's thinking in this period is described at length in Larry D. Kramer, Madison's Audience, 112 Harv. L. Rev. 611, 623-36 (1999).
64. See Alison L. LaCroix, The Authority for Federalism: Madison's Negative and the Origins of Federal Ideology, 28 Law & Hist. Rev. 451, 464-72 (2010) (discussing Madison's support). John Dickinson also expressed early support for the negative.
65. Letter from Thomas Jefferson to James Madison (June 20, 1787), quoted in Charles Warren, The Making of the Constitution 168 (1929).
66. U.S. Const. art. VI, cl. 2.
67. William M. Meigs, The Relation of the Judiciary to the Constitution 137-38 (1919)
68. This story has been told in many places. See, e.g., Larry Kramer, The People Themselves 74-78 (2004);
69. Bradford R. Clark, The Supremacy Clause as a Constraint on Federal Power, 71 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 91, 105-09 (2003);
70. James S. Leibman & William F. Ryan, "Some Effectual Power": The Quantity and Quality of Decisionmaking Required of Article III Courts, 98 Colum. L. Rev. 696, 728-46 (1998);
71. Saikrishna Prakash & John Yoo, The Origins of Judicial Review, 70 U. Chi. L. Rev. 887, 945-49 (2003);
72. Jack Rakove, The Origins of Judicial Review: A Plea for New Contexts, 49 Stan. L. Rev. 1031, 1045-48 (1997).
73. See Daniel Webster, Address on the Senate Floor (Jan. 26-27, 1830), in The Webster-Hayne Debate on the Nature of the Union 137 (Herman Belz ed., 2000)
74. see also Richard H. Fallon, Jr., Ideologies of Federal Courts Law, 74 Va. L. Rev. 1141, 1143-45 (1988).
75. See Caleb Nelson, Preemption, 86 Va. L. Rev. 225, 252-54 (2000).
76. See generally Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 6-28, at 1172- 73 (3d ed. 2000)
77. Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 261 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part);
78. Midwest Title Loans, Inc. v. Mills, 593 F.3d 660, 665 (7th Cir. 2010).
79. See Tyler Pipe, 483 U.S. at 261 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part)
80. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Inc. v. Town of Harrison, 520 U.S. 564, 613 (1997) (Thomas, J., dissenting) (citation omitted).
81. Tyler Pipe, 483 U.S. at 261 (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) ("The exclusivity rationale is infinitely less attractive today than it was in 1847.").
82. 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824).
83. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 227.
84. See Elkison v. Deliesseline, 8 F. Cas. 493, 495 (C.C.D.S.C. 1823) (No. 4366).
85. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 614.
86. Jack M. Balkin, Commerce, 109 Mich. L. Rev. 1, 8-9 (2010) (same).
87. see also Akhil Amar, America's Constitution: A Biography 108 (2005);
88. Robert L. Stern, That Commerce Which Concerns More States Than One, 47 Harv. L. Rev. 1335, 1340 (1934).
89. But see Randy E. Barnett, Restoring the Lost Constitution: The Presumption of Liberty 155, 317-18 (2004)
90. Other studies have shown that mentions of interstate commerce at the Convention dealt almost exclusively with matters of trade. Randy E. Barnett, The Original Meaning of the Commerce Clause, 68 U. Chi. L. Rev. 101, 114-15 (2001);
91. Robert G. Natelson, The Legal Meaning of "Commerce" in the Commerce Clause, 80 St. John's L. Rev. 789, 794-95 (2006).
92. See Bradford C. Clark, Federal Common Law: A Structural Reinterpretation, 144 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1245, 1297 (1996);
93. John Norton Moore, Federalism and Foreign Relations, 1965 Duke L.J. 248, 275-76.
94. But see Jack L. Goldsmith, Federal Courts, Foreign Affairs, and Federalism, 83 Va. L. Rev. 1617, 1641-42 (1997) (calling basis for exclusive foreign affairs power "surprisingly uncertain"). Like the foreign commerce power, the Indian commerce power has long been considered exclusively federal.
95. See Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. (6 Pet.) 515, 561 (1832)
96. Robert N. Clinton, The Dormant Indian Commerce Clause, 27 Conn. L. Rev. 1055, 1174 (1993).
97. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 194;
98. see also Saikrishna Prakash, Our Three Commerce Clauses and the Presumption of Intrasentence Uniformity, 55 Ark. L. Rev. 1149, 1160 (2003).
99. See David L. Lightner, The Founders and the Interstate Slave Trade, 22 J. Early Rep. 25, 28-31 (2002).
100. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 3.
101. 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 60;
102. See also Thurlow v. Massachussetts (The License Cases), 46 U.S. (5 How.) 504, 579-80 (1847) (Taney, C.J., separate opinion)
103. U.S. Const. art. I, § 10, cls. 2-3.
104. David M. Golove, Against Free-Form Formalism, 73 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1791, 1841 n.159 (1998).
105. See, e.g., U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cls. 2, 4.
106. See Seminole Tribe v. Florida, 517 U.S. 44, 60 (1996) ("[T]he Indian Commerce Clause makes 'Indian relations ⋯ the exclusive province of federal law.'")
107. Quoting Cnty. of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of N.Y., 470 U.S. 226, 234 (1985));
108. Japan Line, Ltd. v. Cnty. of Los Angeles, 441 U.S. 434, 448 (1979) (foreign commerce);
109. Goldstein v. California, 412 U.S. 546, 555- 60 (1973) (copyright power);
110. United States v. Arjona, 120 U.S. 479, 487 (1887) (laws of war).
111. See Ali v. Fed. Bureau of Prisons, 552 U.S. 214, 226-27 (2008);
112. see also Fort Stewart Schs. v. FLRA, 495 U.S. 641, 646 (1990) (noting that Congress may sometimes include seemingly unnecessary examples "out of an abundance of caution").
113. 48 U.S. (7 How.) 283, 396 (1849) (McLean, J.).
114. See Adrian Vermeule & Ernest A. Young, Hercules, Herbert, and Amar: The Trouble with Intratextualism, 113 Harv. L. Rev. 730, 731 (2000)
115. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Inc. v. Town of Harrison, 520 U.S. 564, 614 (1997) (Thomas, J., dissenting).
116. Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 261 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (citation omitted);
117. see also Camps Newfound/ Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 614 (Thomas, J., dissenting).
118. See Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 612-13 (Thomas, J., dissenting)
119. Thurlow v. Massachussetts (The License Cases), 46 U.S. (5 How.) 504, 606-07 (1847) (Catron, J.) (using Federalist No. 32 to argue against exclusivity);
120. Livingston v. Van Ingen, 9 Johns. 507, 576 (N.Y. 1812)
121. See Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 197-98 (Johnson, J., concurring)
122. See Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 208 (Marshall, C.J.)
123. Mayor of New York v. Miln, 36 U.S. (11 Pet.) 102, 142 (1837) (classifying the requirement that ship captains provide a passenger list not as commercial regulation but as a police measure).
124. Livingston v. Van Ingen, 9 Johns. 507, 578 (N.Y. 1812) (Kent, C.J.). For more background
125. Livingston, 9 Johns. at 580.
126. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 197-98.
127. See Edward S. Corwin, Congress's Power To Prohibit Commerce: A Crucial Constitutional Issue, 18 Cornell L.Q. 477, 482-83 (1933)
128. Outlining the dualfederalism arguments presented by Madison and later by counsel in Groves v. Slaughter, 40 U.S. (15 Pet.) 449 (1841));
129. see also Miln, 36 U.S. (11 Pet.) at 139 (1837) (Barbour, J.)
130. see Note, "Dual Federalism" Today, 38 Colum. L. Rev. 142, 142 n.1 (1938). Seventeen years later, Corwin lamented its doctrinal death.
131. Edward S. Corwin, The Passing of Dual Federalism, 36 Va. L. Rev. 1, 2-4 (1950).
132. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 239 (Johnson, J., concurring).
133. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 1;
134. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 199
135. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 199
136. See U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 4;
137. Sturges v. Crowninshield, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 122, 149 (1819).
138. Sturges, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) at 194
139. Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co., 27 U.S. (2 Pet.) 245, 252 (1829);
140. Willson, 27 U.S. (2 Pet.) at 250.
141. See Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 262 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part)
142. See Mayor of New York v. Miln, 36 U.S. (11 Pet.) 102, 139 (1837)
143. Brown v. Maryland, 25 U.S. (12 Wheat.) 419, 453 (1827) (Thompson, J., dissenting) ("If such be the division of power between the general and State governments in relation to commerce, where is the line to be drawn between internal and external commerce? It appears to me, that no other sound and practical rule can be adopted ⋯ .");
144. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 204 (1824)
145. Sturges, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) at 196.
146. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 238 (Johnson, J., concurring).
147. Miln, 36 U.S. (11 Pet.) at 132.
148. Quoting Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 204.
149. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 193-95
150. Livingston v. Van Ingen, 9 Johns. 507 (N.Y. 1812).
151. See United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100, 118 (1941).
152. NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1, 37 (1937)
153. Livingston, 9 Johns. at 579 (Kent, C.J.).
154. See Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 223-26 (Johnson, J., concurring) (grounding argument in favor of federal exclusivity in pre-Convention history);
155. Sturges, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) at 193
156. see also 1 Charles Warren, The Supreme Court in United States History, 1789-1835, at 21 (2d ed. 1926) (characterizing the Marshall Court as pursuing a "strongly Nationalistic interpretation of the Constitution").
157. See Cooley v. Bd. of Wardens, 53 U.S. (12 How.) 299, 320-21 (1852)
158. The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) at 563 (1849) (Woodbury, J., dissenting)
159. See Thurlow v. Massachusetts (The License Cases), 46 U.S. (5 How.) 504, 583 (1847) (Taney, C.J., separate opinion).
160. See R. Kent Newmyer, Chief Justice Marshall in the Context of His Times, 56 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 841, 848 (1999)
161. See generally David L. Lightner, Slavery and the Commerce Power: How the Struggle Against the Interstate Slave Trade Led to the Civil War 65- 89 (2006) (citing a number of early interstate commerce cases where concerns regarding slavery impacted the Court's rationale).
162. The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) at 474 (Taney, C.J., dissenting).
163. 53 U.S. (12 How.) 299 (1852);
164. see also Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. State Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 262 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) (suggesting that the Cooley rule "would perhaps be a wise rule to adopt" but arguing against it as a matter of interpretation).
165. Cooley, 53 U.S. (12 How.) at 313.
166. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 193 (holding that commerce power extends to navigation).
167. Cooley, 53 U.S. (12 How.) at 320;
168. Cooley, 53 U.S. (12 How.) at 319.
169. 135 U.S. 100, 119 (1890).
170. See Robbins v. Shelby Cnty. Taxing Dist., 120 U.S. 489, 493 (1887) ("[W]here the power of Congress to regulate is exclusive[,] the failure of Congress to make express regulations indicates its will that the subject shall be left free from any restrictions or impositions ⋯ .");
171. Welton v. Missouri, 91 U.S. 275, 282 (1876) (calling congressional silence "equivalent to a declaration that inter-State commerce shall be free and untrammeled").
172. Leisy, 135 U.S. at 109-10
173. See Norman R. Williams, Why Congress May Not "Overrule" the Dormant Commerce Clause, 53 UCLA L. Rev. 153, 187 (2005) ("The silence-equalspreemption rationale for the Dormant Commerce Clause lost its grip on the Court around the time of the New Deal.").
174. ("No Court in recent memory has endorsed the preemption-by-silence rationale."). The silence rationale is largely obsolete given the modern view that little can be taken from the mere fact of congressional silence.
175. See Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Inc. v. Town of Harrison, 520 U.S. 564, 615 (1997) (Thomas, J., dissenting) ("To the extent that the "pre-emptionby- silence" rationale ever made sense, it, too, has long since been rejected by this Court in virtually every analogous area of law.").
176. E.g., The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) 283 (1849) (nine Justices writing opinions totaling 180 pages);
177. The License Cases, 46 U.S. (5 How.) 504 (1847) (six Justices writing nearly sixty pages).
178. See Barry Cushman, Formalism and Realism in Commerce Clause Jurisprudence, 67 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1089, 1113-16 (2000)
179. See City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey, 437 U.S. 617, 624 (1978)
180. see, e.g., Raymond Motor Transp. Inc. v. Rice, 434 U.S. 429, 447 (1978)
181. Daniel A. Farber, State Regulation and the Dormant Commerce Clause, 3 Const. Comment. 395, 396 (1986)
182. See Antonin Scalia, Originalism: The Lesser Evil, 57 U. Cinn. L. Rev. 849, 861 (1989)
183. Michael H. v. Gerald D., 491 U.S. 110, 127 n.6 (1989)
184. Quoting Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 194 (1986)).
185. In Cooley the Court upheld the pilotage laws as "local" in nature and thus non-violative of the dormant commerce power, a disposition that was consistent with Taney's full-concurrency position. 53 U.S. (12 How.) at 321;
186. C. Swisher, History of the Supreme Court of the United States 406 (1974)
187. The License Cases, 46 U.S. (5 How.) at 579 (Taney, C.J.).
188. The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) at 470 (Taney, C.J, dissenting)
189. see also Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Inc. v. Town of Harrison, 520 U.S. 564, 613 (1997
190. The License Cases, 46 U.S. (5 How.) at 579 (Taney, C.J.)
191. John P. Frank, Justice Daniel Dissenting: A Biography of Peter V. Daniel, 1784- 1860, at 191 (1964).
192. The License Cases, 46 U.S. (5 How.) at 624 (Woodbury, J.) (emphasis added);
193. Accord at 625 (Woodbury, J.)
194. William D. Bader et al., The Jurisprudence of Levi Woodbury, 18 Vt. L. Rev. 261, 261 (1994)
195. The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) at 559 (Woodbury, J., dissenting).
196. See Int'l Shoe Co. v. Washington, 326 U.S. 310, 315 (1945)
197. See Cooley, 53 U.S. (12 How.) at 318
198. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 207
199. Brannon P. Denning, Why the Privileges and Immunities Clause of Article IV Cannot Replace the Dormant Commerce Clause Doctrine, 88 Minn. L. Rev. 384, 398 (2003) [hereinafter Denning, Privileges and Immunities].
200. See, e.g., Prudential Ins. Co. v. Benjamin, 328 U.S. 408, 421-40 (1946)
201. In re Rahrer, 140 U.S. 545, 564-65 (1891)
202. See Tyler Pipe Indus. v. Wash. Dep't of Revenue, 483 U.S. 232, 262 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part)
203. McCarroll v. Dixie Greyhound Lines, 309 U.S. 176, 188-89 (1940) (Black, J., dissenting)
204. Pennsylvania v. Wheeling & Belmont Bridge Co., 54 U.S. (13 How.) 518, 592 (1851)
205. Thomas K. Anson & P.M. Schenkkan, Federalism, the Dormant Commerce Clause, and State-Owned Resources, 59 Tex. L. Rev. 71, 84 (1980)
206. See Thomas W. Merrill, The Common Law Powers of Federal Courts, 52 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1, 22-23 (1985)
207. 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) 1 (1824).
208. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 211-14, 221.
209. Another early example, similar to Gibbons, is provided by the Court's inventive construction of congressional approval of an interstate compact in Wheeling & Belmont Bridge Co., 54 U.S. (13 How.) at 565-66.
210. See, e.g., Ogden v. Gibbons, 4 Johns. Ch. 150, 147 (N.Y. Ch. 1819)
211. 1 James Kent, Commentaries on American Law 408 (New York, O. Halsted 1826)
212. Thomas P. Campbell, Jr., Chancellor Kent, Chief Justice Marshall and The Steamboat Cases, 25 Syracuse L. Rev. 497, 525-26 & n.173 (1974) .
213. Gibbons, 22 U.S. (9 Wheat.) at 232, 233 (Johnson, J., concurring).
214. 63 U.S. (22 How.) 227, 240-44 (1859);
215. see The License Cases, 46 U.S. (5 How.) at 618 (Nelson, J.)
216. Sinnot, 63 U.S. (22 How.) at 241.
217. The Passenger Cases, 48 U.S. (7 How.) at 439-44.
218. 75 U.S. (8 Wall.) 123, 128 (1868).
219. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, Inc. v. Town of Harrison, 520 U.S. 564, 621-37 (1997).
220. 483 U.S. 232, 265 (1987) (Scalia, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part) .
221. But see Bendix Autolite Corp. v. Midwesco Enters., 486 U.S. 888, 898 (1988) (Scalia, J., concurring) .
222. See Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 637-40 (Thomas, J., dissenting) .
223. Camps Newfound/Owatonna, 520 U.S. at 617-18 (Thomas, J., dissenting).
224. Cf. McDonald v. City of Chicago, 130 S. Ct. 3020, 3029-31 (2010)