Orographic effects on precipitating clouds

Reviews of Geophysics

Volumn 50, Issue 1, 2012, Pages

  Houze, Robert A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AIR; BOUNDARY LAYERS; HURRICANES; LANDFORMS; TROPICAL CYCLONE; TROPICS;

COMPLEX TERRAINS; CONVECTIVE SYSTEMS; DEEP CONVECTION; DOWNSLOPE FLOW; MESOSCALE CONVECTIVE SYSTEM; MOUNTAIN RANGES; OROGRAPHIC EFFECTS; PRECIPITATING CLOUDS; TROPICAL CYCLONE; UPSLOPE FLOWS;

RAIN;

BOUNDARY LAYER; CLOUD; CONVECTIVE SYSTEM; MOUNTAIN; OROGRAPHIC EFFECT; PRECIPITATION (CLIMATOLOGY); TERRAIN; TOPOGRAPHY; TURBULENT FLOW;

EID: 84855594526     PISSN: 87551209     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2011RG000365     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Asencio, N., and J. Stein (2006), Origins of the reversed flow over the windward Alpine foothills during MAP IOP3 and IOP8, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 132, 297-316, doi:10.1256/qj.04.188.
2. Awaka, J., T. Iguchi, H. Kumagai, and K. Okamoto (1997), Rain type classification algorithm for TRMM precipitation radar, in Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 1997: IGARSS '97, Remote Sensing-A Scientific Vision for Sustainable Development, vol. 4, pp. 1633-1635, Inst. of Electr. and Electron. Eng., New York, doi:10.1109/IGARSS.1997.608993.
3. Baines, P. G. (1995), Topographic Effects in Stratified Flows, 482 pp., Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
4. Barrett, B. S., R. D. Garreaud, and M. Falvey (2009), Effect of the Andes cordillera on precipitation from a midlatitude cold front, Mon. Weather Rev., 137, 3092-3109, doi:10.1175/2009MWR2881.1.
5. Barros, A. P., and R. J. Kuligowski (1998), Orographic effects during a severe wintertime rainstorm in the Appalachian Mountains, Mon. Weather Rev., 126, 2648-2672, doi:10.1175/1520-0493 (1998)1262.0.CO;2.
6. Barros, A. P., and T. J. Lang (2003), Monitoring the monsoon in the Himalayas: Observations in central Nepal, June 2001, Mon. Weather Rev., 131(7), 1408-1427, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)1312.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 36953820)
7. Barros, A. P., and D. P. Lettenmaier (1994), Dynamic modeling of orographically induced precipitation, Rev. Geophys., 32, 265-284, doi:10.1029/94RG00625. (Pubitemid 24987633)
8. Barros, A. P., M. Joshi, J. Putkonen, and D. W. Burbank (2000), A study of the 1999 monsoon rainfall in a mountainous region in central Nepal using TRMM products and rain gauge observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3683-3686, doi:10.1029/2000GL011827.
9. Barros, A. P., G. Kim, E. Williams, and S. W. Nesbitt (2004), Probing orographic controls in the Himalayas during the monsoon using satellite imagery, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 4, 29-51, doi:10.5194/nhess-4-29-2004. (Pubitemid 38502898)
10. Barros, A. P., S. Chiao, T. J. Lang, D. Burbank, and J. Putkonen (2006), From weather to climate-Seasonal and interannual variability of storms and implications for erosion processes in the Himalaya, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 398, 17-38, doi:10.1130/S2006.2398(02).
11. Barstad, I., and R. B. Smith (2005), Evaluation of an orographic precipitation model, J. Hydrometeorol., 6, 85-99, doi:10.1175/JHM-404.1. (Pubitemid 40367923)
12. Bell, G. D., and L. F. Bosart (1988), Appalachian cold-air damming, Mon. Weather Rev., 116, 137-161, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1988) 1162.0.CO;2.
13. Bergeron, T. (1965), On the low-level redistribution of atmospheric water caused by orography, paper presented at the International Conference on Cloud Physics, Tokyo and Sapporo, Japan, Int. Assoc. of Meteorol. and Atmos. Phys. of the Int. Union of Geod. and Geophys., 24 May to 1 June.
14. Bhushan, S., and A. P. Barros (2007), A numerical study to investigate the relationship between moisture convergence patterns and orography in central Mexico, J. Hydrometeorol., 8, 1264-1284, doi:10.1175/2007JHM791.1.
15. Bousquet, O., and B. Smull (2003), Airflow and precipitation fields within deep Alpine valleys observed by airborne Doppler radars, J. Appl. Meteorol., 42, 1497-1513, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(2003)0422.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 37458536)
16. Braun, S. A., R. A. Houze Jr., and B. F. Smull (1997), Airborne dual-Doppler observations of an intense frontal system approaching the Pacific Northwest coast, Mon. Weather Rev., 125, 3131-3156. (Pubitemid 127667531)
17. Braun, S. A., R. Rotunno, and J. B. Klemp (1999a), Effects of coastal orography on landfalling cold fronts: Part I. Dry, inviscid dynamics, J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 517-533, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1999)0562.0.CO;2.
18. Braun, S. A., R. Rotunno, and J. B. Klemp (1999b), Effects of coastal orography on landfalling cold fronts: Part II. Effects of surface friction, J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 3366-3384, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1999)0562.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 30045002)
19. Browning, K. A. (1974), Mesoscale structure of rain systems in the British Isles, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 50, 314-327.
20. Browning,K.A.(1986), Conceptual modelsofprecipitation systems, Weather Forecasting, 1, 23-41, doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1986) 0012.0.CO;2.
21. Browning, K. A., F. F. Hill, and C. W. Pardoe (1974), Structure and mechanism of precipitation and the effect of orography in a wintertime warm sector, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 100, 309-330, doi:10.1002/qj.49710042505.
22. Caracena, F., R. A. Maddox, L. R. Hoxit, and C. F. Chappell (1979), Mesoanalysis of the Big Thompson storm, Mon. Weather Rev., 107, 1-17, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1979)1072.0.CO;2.
23. Carbone, R. E., J. D. Tuttle, D. A. Ahijevych, and S. B. Trier (2002), Inferences of predictability associated with warm season precipitation episodes, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 2033-2056, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)0592.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34817274)
24. Carlson, T. N., S. G. Benjamin, G. S. Forbes, and Y. Li (1983), Elevated mixed layers in the regional severe storm environment: Conceptual model and case studies, Mon. Weather Rev., 111, 1453-1474, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1983)1112.0. CO;2.
25. Chang, L. T.-C., G. T.-J. Chen, and K. K. W. Cheung (2008), Mesoscale simulation and moisture budget analyses of a heavy rain event over southern Taiwan in the Meiyu season, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 101, 43-63, doi:10.1007/s00703-008-0286-7.
26. Chen, C.-S., W.-C. Chen, and W.-K. Tao (2004), Characteristics of heavy summer rainfall in southwestern Taiwan in relation to orographic effects, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 82, 1521-1543, doi:10.2151/jmsj.82.1521. (Pubitemid 40252248)
27. Chen, C.-S., W.-C. Chen, Y.-L. Chen, P.-L. Lin, and H.-C. Lai (2005), Investigation of orographic effects on two heavy rainfall events over southwestern Taiwan during the Mei-Yu season, Atmos. Res., 73, 101-130, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2004.07.005. (Pubitemid 39648788)
28. Chen, C.-S., Y.-L. Lin, W.-C. Peng, and C.-L. Liu (2010), Investigation of a heavy rainfall event over southwestern Taiwan associated with a subsynoptic cyclone during the 2003 Mei-Yu season, Atmos. Res., 95, 235-254, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres.2009. 10.003.
29. Chen, C.-S., Y.-L. Lin, N.-J. Hsu, and C.-Y. Chen (2011), Oro-graphic effects on localized heavy rainfall events over southwestern Taiwan on 27 and 28 June 2008 during the post-Mei-Yu period, Atmos. Res., 101, 595-610, doi:10.1016/j.atmosres. 2011.04.004.
30. Chen, G. T.-J., Z. Jiang, and M.-C. Wu (2003), Spring heavy rain events in Taiwan during warm episodes and the associated large-scale conditions, Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 1173-1188, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)1312.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 36953807)
31. Chen, G. T.-J., C.-C. Wang, and D. T.-W. Lin (2005), Characteristics of low-level jets over northern Taiwan in Mei-Yu season and their relationship to heavy rain events, Mon. Weather Rev., 133, 20-43, doi:10.1175/MWR-2813.1. (Pubitemid 40295076)
32. Chen, S. S., and R. A. Houze Jr. (1997), Diurnal variation and life cycle of deep convective systems over the tropical Pacific warm pool, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 123, 357-388, doi:10.1002/qj.49712353806.
33. Chen, Y., and W. Hui (1990), Analysis of a shallow cold front during the Taiwan mesoscale experiment, Mon. Weather Rev., 118, 2649-2667, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1990)1182.0.CO;2.
34. Chiao, S., and A. P. Barros (2007), A numerical study of the hydrometeorological dryline in northwest India during the monsoon, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 85A, 337-361, doi:10.2151/jmsj.85A.337. (Pubitemid 46767121)
35. Colle, B. A., B. F. Smull, and M.-J. Yang (2002), Numerical simulations of a landfalling cold front observed during COAST: Rapid evolution and responsible mechanisms, Mon. Weather Rev., 130, 1945-1966, doi:10.1175/1520- 0493(2002)1302.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34915588)
36. Das, P. K. (1987), Short and long-range monsoon prediction in India, in Monsoons, edited by J. S. Fein and P. L. Stephens, pp. 549-578, John Wiley, New York.
37. Dickinson, M. J., and D. J. Knight (1999), Frontal interaction with mesoscale topography, J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 3544-3559, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1999) 0562.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 30081273)
38. Doyle, J. D. (1997), The influence of mesoscale orography on a coastal jet and rainband, Mon. Weather Rev., 125, 1465-1488, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1997) 1252.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 127586045)
39. Doyle, J. D., and N. A. Bond (2001), Research aircraft observations and numerical simulations of a warm front approaching Vancouver Island, Mon. Weather Rev., 129, 978-998, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2001)1292.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 32566716)
40. Ducrocq, V., O. Nuissier, D. Ricard, C. Lebeaupin, and T. Thouvenin (2008), A numerical study of three catastrophic precipitating events over southern France, II: Mesoscale triggering and statio-narity factors, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 134, 131-145, doi:10.1002/qj.199. (Pubitemid 351512718)
41. Emanuel, K. A. (1986), An air-sea interaction theory for tropical cyclones: Part I. Steady-state maintenance, J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 585-605, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1986)0432.0. CO;2.
42. Farber, R. J. (1972), A study of cloud particles in synoptic storms over the Pacific Northwest, M.S. thesis, 649 pp., Dep. of Atmo. Sci., Univ. of Wash., Seattle.
43. Fein, J. S., and J. P. Kuettner (1980), Report on the summer MONEX field phase, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc, 61, 461-474.
44. Frame, J., and P. Markowski (2006), The interaction of simulated squall lines with idealized mountain ridges, Mon. Weather Rev., 134, 1919-1941, doi:10.1175/MWR3157.1. (Pubitemid 44184532)
45. Frei, C, and C. Schär (1998), A precipitation climatology of the Alps from high-resolution rain-gauge observations, Int. J. Cli-matol, 18, 873-900, doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0088(19980630) 18:83.0.CO;2-9. (Pubitemid 28519735)
46. Garvert, M. F., B. Smull, and C. Mass (2007), Multiscale mountain waves influencing a major orographic precipitation event, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 711-737, doi:10.1175/JAS3876.1. (Pubitemid 46554475)
47. Geerts, B., G. M. Heymsfield, L. Tian, J. B. Halverson, A. Guillory, and M. I. Mejia (2000), Hurricane Georges's landfall in the Dominican Republic: Detailed airborne Doppler radar imagery, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc, 81, 999-1018, doi:10.1175/1520-0477(2000)0812.3.CO;2.
48. Georgis, J.-F., F. Roux, M. Chong, and S. Pradier (2003), Triple-Doppler radar analysis of the heavy rain event observed in the Lago Maggiore region during MAP IOP2b, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 129, 495-522, doi:10.1256/qj.02.46. (Pubitemid 36400625)
49. Giovannettone, J. P., and A. P. Barros (2008), A remote sensing survey of the role of landform on the organization of orographic precipitation in central and southern Mexico, J. Hydrometeorol., 9, 1267-1283, doi:10.1175/2008JHM947.1.
50. Gross, B. D. (1994), Frontal interaction with isolated orography, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1480-1496, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1994) 0512.0.CO;2.
51. Hartley, T. M., and Y.-L. Chen (2010), Characteristics of summer trade wind rainfall over Oahu, Weather Forecasting, 25, 1797-1815, doi:10.1175/2010WAF2222328.1.
52. Hirose, M., and K. Nakamura (2005), Spatial and diurnal variation of precipitation systems over Asia observed by the TRMM Precipitation Radar, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D05106, doi:10.1029/2004JD004815. (Pubitemid 40815052)
53. Hobbs, P. V. (1975), The nature of winter clouds and precipitation in the Cascade Mountains and their modification by artificial seeding: Part I. Natural conditions, J. Appl. Meteorol., 14(5), 783-804, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1975) 0142.0.CO;2.
54. Hobbs, P. V., R. C. Easter, and A. B. Fraser (1973), A theoretical study of the flow of air and fallout of solid precipitation over mountainous terrain: Part II. Microphysics, J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 813-823, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1973) 0302.0. CO;2.
55. Houze, R. A., Jr. (1977), Structure and dynamics of a tropical squall-line system, Mon. Weather Rev., 105, 1540-1567, doi:10.1175/1520- 0493(1977)1052.0.CO;2.
56. Houze, R. A., Jr. (1981), Structure of atmospheric precipitation systems: A global survey, Radio Sci., 16, 671-689, doi:10.1029/RS016i005p00671.
57. Houze, R. A., Jr. (1982), Cloud clusters and large-scale vertical motions in the tropics, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 60, 396-410.
58. Houze, R. A., Jr. (1989), Observed structure of mesoscale convec-tive systems and implications for large-scale heating, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 115, 425-461, doi:10.1002/qj.49711548702.
59. Houze, R. A., Jr. (1993), Cloud Dynamics, 337 pp., Academic, San Diego, Calif.
60. Houze, R. A., Jr. (1997), Stratiform precipitation in regions of convection: A meteorological paradox?, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 2179-2196, doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1997)0782.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 127483204)
61. Houze, R. A., Jr. (2004), Mesoscale convective systems, Rev. Geophys., 42, RG4003, doi:10.1029/2004RG000150. (Pubitemid 40294767)
62. Houze, R. A., Jr. (2010), Clouds in tropical cyclones, Mon. Weather Rev., 138, 293-344.
63. Houze, R. A., Jr., and D. D. Churchill (1987), Mesoscale organization and cloud microphysics in a Bay of Bengal depression, J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1845-1868, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1987) 0442.0.CO;2.
64. Houze, R. A., Jr., and P. V. Hobbs (1982), Organization and structure of precipitating cloud systems, Adv. Geophys., 24, 225-315, doi:10.1016/S0065- 2687(08)60521-X.
65. Houze, R. A., Jr., and S. Medina (2005), Turbulence as a mechanism for orographic precipitation enhancement, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3599-3623, doi:10.1175/JAS3555.1. (Pubitemid 41623150)
66. Houze, R. A., Jr., P. V. Hobbs, K. R. Biswas, and W. M. Davis (1976), Mesoscale rainbands in extratropical cyclones, Mon. Weather Rev., 104, 868-878, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1976) 1042.0.CO;2.
67. Houze, R. A., Jr., C. N. James, and S. Medina (2001), Radar observations of precipitation and airflow on the Mediterranean side of the Alps: Autumn 1998 and 1999, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 127, 2537-2558, doi:10.1002/qj.49712757804. (Pubitemid 34002322)
68. Houze, R. A., Jr., D. C. Wilton, and B. F. Smull (2007a), Monsoon convection in the Himalayan region as seen by the TRMM Precipitation Radar, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 133, 1389-1411. (Pubitemid 350002127)
69. Houze, R. A., Jr., S. S. Chen, B. F. Smull, W.-C. Lee, and M. M. Bell (2007b), Hurricane intensity and eyewall replacement, Science, 315, 1235-1239, doi:10.1126/science.1135650. (Pubitemid 46364254)
70. Houze, R. A., Jr., K. L. Rasmussen, S. Medina, S. R. Brodzik, and U. Romatschke (2011), Anomalous atmospheric events leading to the summer 2010 floods in Pakistan, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 92, 291-298, doi:10.1175/ 2010BAMS3173.1.
71. James, C. N., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2005), Modification of precipitation by coastal orography in storms crossing northern California, Mon. Weather Rev., 133, 3110-3131, doi:10.1175/MWR3019.1. (Pubitemid 41782872)
72. Jiang, Q., and R. B. Smith (2003), Cloud timescale and orographic precipitation, J. Atmos. Sci., 60, 1543-1559, doi:10.1175/2995.1. (Pubitemid 36906594)
73. Johnson, R. H., and R. A. Houze Jr. (1987), Precipitating cloud systems of the Asian monsoon, in Monsoon Meteorology, edited by C.-P. Chang and T. N. Krishnamurti, pp. 298-353, Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
74. Keeter, K. K., S. Businger, L. G. Lee, and J. S. Waldstreicher (1995), Winter weather forecasting throughout the eastern United States: Part III. The effects of topography and the variability of winter weather in the Carolinas and Virginia, Weather Forecasting, 10, 42-60, doi:10.1175/1520-0434(1995)0102.0. CO;2.
75. Kerns, J., B. Wesley, Y.-L. Chen, and M.-Y. Chang (2010), The diurnal cycle of winds, rain, and clouds over Taiwan during the Mei-Yu, summer, and autumn rainfall regimes, Mon. Weather Rev., 138, 497-516, doi:10.1175/ 2009MWR3031.1.
76. Kikuchi, K., and B. Wang (2008), Diurnal precipitation regimes in the global tropics, J. Clim., 21, 2680-2696, doi:10.1175/2007JCLI2051.1.
77. Kingsmill, D. E., P. J. Neiman, F. M. Ralph, and A. B. White (2006), Synoptic and topographic variability of Northern California precipitation characteristics in landfalling winter storms observed during CALJET, Mon. Weather Rev., 134, 2072-2094, doi:10.1175/MWR3166.1. (Pubitemid 44275525)
78. Kirshbaum, D. J., and R. B. Smith (2009), Orographic precipitation in the tropics: Large-eddy simulations and theory, J. Atmos. Sci., 66, 2559-2578, doi:10.1175/2009JAS2990.1.
79. Kirshbaum, D. J., G. H. Bryan, R. Rotunno, and D. R. Durran (2007), The triggering of orographic rainbands by small-scale topography, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 1530-1549, doi:10.1175/JAS3924.1. (Pubitemid 46882307)
80. Kodama, Y.-M., A. Ohta, M. Katsumata, S. Mori, S. Satoh, and H. Ueda (2005), Seasonal transitions of predominant precipitation type and lightning activity over tropical monsoon areas derived from TRMM observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L14710, doi:10.1029/2005GL022986. (Pubitemid 41372618)
81. Koteswaram, P., and C. A. George (1958), On the formation of monsoon depressions in the Bay of Bengal, Indian J. Meteorol. Geophys., 9, 9-22.
82. Krishnamurti, T. N., M. Kanamitsu, R. Godbole, C.-B. Chang, F. Carr, and J. H. Chow (1975), Study of a monsoon depression: I. Synoptic structure, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 53, 227-239.
83. Kummerow, C., W. Barnes, T. Kozu, J. Shiue, and J. Simpson (1998), The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) sensor package, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 15, 809-817, doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1998)0152.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 128562830)
84. Kummerow, C., et al. (2000), The status of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) after two years in orbit, J. Appl. Meteorol., 39, 1965-1982, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(2001) 0402.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 32207810)
85. Lang, J. T., and A. P. Barros (2002), An investigation of the onsets of the 1999 and 2000 monsoons in central Nepal, Mon. Weather Rev., 130, 1299-1316, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2002)1302.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34523443)
86. Li, Y., and R. B. Smith (2010), The detection and significance of diurnal pressure and potential vorticity anomalies east of the Rockies, J. Atmos. Sci., 67, 2734-2751, doi:10.1175/2010JAS3423.1.
87. Lin, Y.-L., S. Chiao, T.-A. Wang, M. L. Kaplan, and R. P. Weglarz (2001), Some common ingredients for heavy orographic rainfall, Weather Forecasting, 16, 633-660, doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2001) 0162.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34140497)
88. Locatelli, J. D., and P. V. Hobbs (1987), The mesoscale and micro-scale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in midlatitude cyclones: Part XIII. Structure of a warm front, J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 2290-2309, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1987) 0442.0.CO;2.
89. Mapes, B. E., T. T. Warner, and M. Xu (2003), Diurnal patterns of rainfall in northwestern South America: Part III. Diurnal gravity waves and nocturnal convection offshore, Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 830-844, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003)1312.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 36659041)
90. Marengo, J. A., W. R. Soares, C. Saulo, and M. Nicolini (2004), Climatology of the low level jet east of the Andes as derived from the NCEP-NCAR reanalyses: Characteristics and temporal variability, J. Clim., 17, 2261-2280, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2004)0172.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 38945782)
91. Marwitz, J. D. (1983), The kinematics of orographic airflow during Sierra storms, J. Atmos. Sci., 40, 1218-1227, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1983)0402.0.CO;2.
92. Marwitz, J. D. (1987), Deep orographic storms over the Sierra Nevada: Part I. Thermodynamic and kinematic structure, J. Atmos. Sci.,44, 159-173, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1987)0442.0.CO;2.
93. Matejka, T. J., R. A. Houze Jr., and P. V. Hobbs (1980), Micro-physics and dynamics of clouds associated with mesoscale rain-bands in tropical cyclones, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 106, 29-56, doi:10.1002/qj.49710644704.
94. Medina, S. (2005), Orographic enhancement of mid-latitude cyclone precipitation, Ph. D. dissertation, Univ. of Wash., Seattle.
95. Medina, S., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2003), Air motions and precipitation growth in alpine storms, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 129, 345-371, doi:10.1256/qj.02.13. (Pubitemid 36400618)
96. Medina, S., B. F. Smull, R. A. Houze Jr., and M. Steiner (2005), Cross-barrier flow during orographic precipitation events: Results from MAP and IMPROVE, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 3580-3598, doi:10.1175/JAS3554.1. (Pubitemid 41623149)
97. Medina, S., E. Sukovich, and R. A. Houze Jr. (2007), Vertical structures of precipitation in cyclones crossing the Oregon Cascades, Mon. Weather Rev., 135, 3565-3586, doi:10.1175/MWR3470.1. (Pubitemid 350042276)
98. Medina, S., R. A. Houze Jr., A. Kumar, and D. Niyogi (2010), Summer monsoon convection in the Himalayan region: Terrain and land cover effects, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 136, 593-616.
99. Minder, J. R., D. R. Durran, G. H. Roe, and A. M. Anders (2008), The climatology of small-scale orographic precipitation over the Olympic Mountains: Patterns and processes, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc, 134, 817-839, doi:10.1002/qj.258.
100. Nagle, R. E., and S. M. Serebreny (1962), Radar precipitation echo and satellite cloud observations of a maritime cyclone, J. Appl. Meteorol., 1, 279-295, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1962) 0012.0.CO;2.
101. Negri, A. J., T. L. Bell, and L. Xu (2002), Sampling of the diurnal cycle of precipitation using TRMM, J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol, 19, 1333-1344, doi:10.1175/1520-0426(2002)0192.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 35212708)
102. Neiman, P. J., F. M. Ralph, A. B. White, D. E. Kingsmill, and P. O. G. Persson (2002), The statistical relationship between upslope flow and rainfall in California's coastal mountains: Observations during CALJET, Mon. Weather Rev., 130, 1468-1492, doi: 10.1175/1520-0493(2002)1302.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 34749933)
103. Neiman, P. J., F. M. Ralph, G. A. Wick, J. D. Lundquist, and M. D. Dettinger (2008), Meteorological characteristics and overland precipitation impacts of atmospheric rivers affecting the west coast of North America based on eight years of SSM/I satellite observations, J. Hydrometeorol., 9, 22-47, doi:10.1175/2007JHM855.1.
104. Newell, R. E., N. E. Newell, Y. Zhu, and C. Scott (1992), Tropospheric rivers? A pilot study, Geophys. Res. Lett., 19, 2401-2404, doi:10.1029/ 92GL02916.
105. Nogués-Paegle, J., and K. C. Mo (1997), Alternating wet and dry conditions over South America during summer, Mon. Weather Rev., 125, 279-291, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1997)1252.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 127592835)
106. Nuissier, O., V. Ducrocq, D. Ricard, C. Lebeaupin, and S. Anquetin (2008), A numerical study of three catastrophic precipitating events over southern France: I. Numerical framework and synoptic ingredients, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 134, 111-130, doi:10.1002/qj.200. (Pubitemid 351512717)
107. Parish, T. R. (1982), Barrier winds along the Sierra Nevada Mountains, J. Appl. Meteorol., 21, 925-930, doi:10.1175/1520-0450 (1982)0212.0.CO;2.
108. Passarelli, R. E., and H. Boehme (1983), The orographic modulation of pre-warm-front precipitation in southern New England, Mon. Weather Rev., 111, 1062-1070, doi:10.1175/1520-0493 (1983)1112.0.CO;2.
109. Peterson, T. C., L. O. Grant, W. R. Cotton, and D. C. Rogers (1991), The effect of decoupled low-level flow on winter oro-graphic clouds and precipitation in the Yampa River valley, J. Appl. Meteorol., 30, 368-386, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1991) 0302.0.CO;2.
110. Ralph, F. M., P. J. Neiman, and G. A. Wick (2004), Satellite and CALJET aircraft observations of atmospheric rivers over the eastern North Pacific Ocean during the winter of 1997/98, Mon. Weather Rev., 132, 1721-1745, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2004) 1322.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 39052093)
111. Ralph, F. M., P. J. Neiman, and R. Rotunno (2005), Dropsonde observations in low-level jets over the northeastern Pacific Ocean from CALJET-1998 and PACJET-2001: Mean vertical-profile and atmospheric-river characteristics, Mon. Weather Rev., 133, 889-910, doi:10.1175/MWR2896.1. (Pubitemid 40659736)
112. Rasmussen, K. L., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2011), Orogenic convection in subtropical South America as seen by the TRMM satellite, Mon. Weather Rev., 139(8), 2399-2420, doi:10.1175/MWR-D-10-05006.1.
113. Reeves, H. D., and Y.-L. Lin (2007), The effects of a mountain on the propagation of a preexisting convective system for blocked and unblocked flow regimes, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 2401-2421, doi:10.1175/JAS3959.1. (Pubitemid 47233143)
114. Reeves, H. D., and R. Rotunno (2008), Orographic flow response to variations in upstream humidity, J. Atmos. Sci., 65, 3557-3570, doi:10.1175/2008JAS2762.1.
115. Reeves, H. D., Y.-L. Lin, and R. Rotunno (2008), Dynamic forcing and mesoscale variability of heavy precipitation events over the Sierra Nevada mountains, Mon. Weather Rev., 136, 62-77, doi:10.1175/2007MWR2164.1. (Pubitemid 351308458)
116. Roe, G. H. (2005), Orographic precipitation, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 33, 645-671, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.33. 092203.122541. (Pubitemid 40849797)
117. Roe, G. H., D. R. Montgomery, and B. Hallet (2003), Orographic precipitation and the relief of mountain ranges, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B6), 2315, doi:10.1029/2001JB001521.
118. Romatschke, U., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2010), Extreme summer convection in South America, J. Clim., 23, 3761-3791, doi:10.1175/2010JCLI3465.1.
119. Romatschke, U., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2011a), Characteristics of precipitating convective systems in the premonsoon season of South Asia, J. Hydrometeorol., 12, 157-180, doi:10.1175/2010JHM1311.1.
120. Romatschke, U., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2011b), Characteristics of precipitating convective systems in the South Asian monsoon, J. Hydrometeorol., 12, 3-26, doi:10.1175/2010JHM1289.1.
121. Romatschke, U., S. Medina, and R. A. Houze Jr. (2010), Regional, seasonal, and diurnal variations of extreme convection in the South Asian region, J. Clim., 23, 419-439, doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3140.1.
122. Rotunno, R., and R. Ferretti (2001), Mechanisms of intense alpine rainfall, J. Atmos. Sci., 58, 1732-1749, doi:10.1175/1520-0469 (2001)0582.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 32752863)
123. Rotunno, R., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2007), Lessons on orographic precipitation from the Mesoscale Alpine Programme, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 133, 811-830, doi:10.1002/qj.67. (Pubitemid 47091194)
124. Rotunno, R., J. B. Klemp, and M. L. Weisman (1988), A theory for strong, long-lived squall lines, J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 463-485, doi:10.1175/1520- 0469(1988)0452.0.CO;2.
125. Saha, K., and S. Saha (1988), Thermal budget of a monsoon depression in the Bay of Bengal during FGGE-MONEX 1979, Mon. Weather Rev., 116, 242-255, doi:10.1175/1520-0493 (1988)1162.0.CO;2.
126. Saulo, A. C., M. Nicolini, and S. C. Chou (2000), Model characterization of the South American low-level flow during the 1997-1998 spring-summer season, Clim. Dyn., 16, 867-881, doi:10.1007/s003820000085.
127. Schumacher, P. N., D. J. Knight, and L. F. Bosart (1996), Frontal interaction with the Appalachian Mountains: Part I. A climatology, Mon. Weather Rev., 124, 2453-2468, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1996)1242.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 126527492)
128. Seity, Y., S. Soula, P. Tabary, and G. Scialom (2003), The convec-tive storm system during IOP 2a of MAP: Cloud-to-ground lightning flash production in relation to dynamics and micro-physics, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 129, 523-542, doi:10.1256/qj.02.03. (Pubitemid 36405655)
129. Shapiro, L. J., and H. E. Willoughby (1982), The response of balanced hurricanes to local sources of heat and momentum, J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 378-394, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1982) 0392.0.CO;2.
130. Shukla, J. (1978), CISK-barotropic-baroclinic instability and the growth of monsoon depressions, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 495-508, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1978) 0352.0.CO;2.
131. Smith, R. B. (1979), The influence of mountains on the atmosphere, Adv. Geophys., 21, 87-230, doi:10.1016/S0065-2687(08) 60262-9.
132. Smith, R. B. (2003), A linear upslope-time-delay model for oro-graphic precipitation, J. Hydrol., 282, 2-9, doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(03)00248-8. (Pubitemid 37365169)
133. Smith, R. B. (2006), Progress on the theory of orographic precipitation, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 398, 1-16, doi:10.1130/2006.2398(01).
134. Smith, R. B., and I. Barstad (2004), A linear theory of orographic precipitation, J. Atmos. Sci., 61, 1377-1391, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2004)0612.0. CO;2. (Pubitemid 38945799)
135. Smith, R. B., P. Schafer, D. Kirshbaum, and E. Regina (2009), Orographic enhancement of precipitation inside Hurricane Dean, J. Hydrometeorol., 10, 820-831, doi:10.1175/2008JHM1057.1.
136. Smolarkiewicz, P. K., and R. Rotunno (1989), Low Froude number flow past three-dimensional obstacles: Part I. Baroclinically generated lee vortices, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 1154-1164, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1989)0462.0.CO;2.
137. Steiner, M., O. Bousquet, R. A. Houze Jr., B. F. Smull, and M. Mancini (2003), Airflow within major Alpine river valleys under heavy rainfall, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 129, 411-431, doi:10.1256/qj.02.08. (Pubitemid 36400621)
138. Tang, X.-D., M.-J. Yang, and Z.-M. Tan (2011), A modeling study of orographic convection and mountain waves in the landfalling Typhoon Nari (2001), Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., doi:10.1002/qj.933, in press.
139. Tripoli, G. J., and W. R. Cotton (1989), Numerical study of an observed orogenic mesoscale convective system: Part 1. Simulated genesis and comparison with observations, Mon. Weather Rev., 117, 273-304, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1989) 1172.0.CO;2.
140. Vera, C., et al. (2006), The South American Low-Level Jet Experiment, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 87, 63-77, doi:10.1175/BAMS-87-1-63. (Pubitemid 43230547)
141. Vivekanandan, J., D. S. Zrnic, S. M. Ellis, R. Oye, A. V. Ryzhkov, and J. Straka (1999), Cloud microphysics retrieval using S-band polarization radar measurements, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 80, 381-388, doi:10.1175/1520-0477(1999) 0802.0. CO;2. (Pubitemid 129568517)
142. Webster, P. J., et al. (2002), The JASMINE pilot study, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 83, 1603-1630, doi:10.1175/BAMS-83-11-1603.
143. Weston, K. J. (1972), The dry-line of northern India and its role in cumulonimbus convection, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 98, 519-531, doi:10.1002/qj.49709841704.
144. White, A. B., P. J. Neiman, F. M. Ralph, D. E. Kingsmill, and P. O. G. Persson (2003), Coastal orographic rainfall processes observed by radar during the California Land-Falling Jets Experiment, J. Hydrometeorol., 4, 264-282, doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2003)42.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 36751423)
145. Willoughby, H. E. (1998), Tropical cyclone eye thermodynamics, Mon. Weather Rev., 126, 3053-3067, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1998)1262.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 128585137)
146. Witcraft, N. C., Y.-L. Lin, and Y.-H. Kuo (2005), Dynamics of orographic rain associated with the passage of a tropical cyclone over a mesoscale mountain, Terr. Atmos. Oceanic Sci., 16, 1133-1161. (Pubitemid 43150095)
147. Xie, S. P., H. Xu, N. H. Saji, Y. Wang, and W. T. Liu (2006), Role of narrow mountains in large-scale organization of Asian monsoon convection, J. Clim., 19, 3420-3429, doi:10.1175/JCLI3777.1. (Pubitemid 44177904)
148. Yu, C.-K., and L.-W. Cheng (2008), Radar observations of intense orographic precipitation associated with Typhoon Xangsane, 2000, Mon. Weather Rev., 136, 497-521, doi:10.1175/2007MWR2129.1. (Pubitemid 351756589)
149. Yu, C.-K., and B. F. Smull (2000), Airborne Doppler observations of a landfalling cold front upstream of steep coastal orography, Mon. Weather Rev., 128, 1577-1603, doi:10.1175/1520-0493 (2000)1282.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 30464409)
150. Yuter, S. E., and R. A. Houze Jr. (2003), Microphysical modes of precipitation growth determined by S-band vertically pointing radar in orographic precipitation during MAP, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 29, 455-476, doi:10.1256/qj.01.216. (Pubitemid 36400623)
151. Zhu, Y., and R. E. Newell (1994), Atmospheric rivers and bombs, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 1999-2002, doi:10.1029/94GL01710.
152. Zhu, Y., and R. E. Newell (1998), A proposed algorithm for moisture fluxes from atmospheric rivers, Mon. Weather Rev., 126, 725-735, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1998)1262.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 128581562)
153. Zipser, E. J. (1977), Mesoscale and convective-scale downdrafts as distinct components of squall-line circulation, Mon. Weather Rev., 105, 1568-1589, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1977)1052.0.CO;2.
154. Zipser, E. J., D. J. Cecil, C. Liu, S. W. Nesbitt, and D. P. Yorty (2006), Where are the most intense thunderstorms on Earth?, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 87, 1057-1071, doi:10.1175/BAMS-87-8-1057. (Pubitemid 44336120)
155. Zuidema, P. (2003), Convective clouds over the Bay of Bengal, Mon. Weather Rev., 131, 780-798, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2003) 1312.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 36659038)