Emissions trading in Australia: Markets, law and justice under the CPRS

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 27, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 131-162

  Power, Michael ^a  

^a The University of Melbourne   (Australia)

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EID: 84855533879     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (436)

1. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth);
2. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2009 (Cth);
3. Australian Climate Change Regulatory Authority Bill 2009 (Cth);
4. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (Charges - General) Bill 2009 (Cth);
5. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (Charges - Customs) Bill 2009 (Cth);
6. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (Charges - Excise) Bill 2009 (Cth);
7. Customs Tariff Amendment (Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme) Bill 2009 (Cth);
8. Excise Tariff Amendment (Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme) Bill 2009 (Cth);
9. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS Fuel Credits) Bill 2009 (Cth);
10. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS Fuel Credits) (Consequential Amendments) Bill 2009 (Cth);
11. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Amendment (Household Assistance) Bill 2009 (Cth).
12. See Wong P (Minister for Climate Change and Water), Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: Support in Managing the Impact of the Global Recession (media release, Australian Government, 4 May 2009).
13. Prest J, "A Dangerous Obsession with Least Cost?" in Gumley W and Daya-Winterbottom T (eds), Climate Change Law: Comparative, Contractual and Regulatory Considerations (Lawbook Co, 2009) p 179.
14. Giddens A, The Politics of Climate Change (Polity, 2009) pp 200-201;
15. Weston D, "Carbon Trading: Much Ado About Nothing" (2009) 99 Arena 19.
16. Ellcrman AD and Harrison Jr D, Emissions Trading in the US: Experience, Lessons and Considerations for Greenhouse Gases (Pew Centre on Global Climate Change, 2003).
17. They were first fully considered in Dales JH, Pollution, Property and Prices: An Essay in Policy-making and Economics (University of Toronto Press, 1968)
18. though the basic idea can be traced to Coase R, "The Problem of Social Cost" (1962) 3 JL and Econ 1.
19. See also Tietenberg T, "The Design of Property Rights for Air Pollution Control" (1974) 27 (3) Pub Pol 275.
20. See generally Hahn R and Stavins R, "Incentive-Based Environmental Regulation: A New Era from an Old Idea" (1991) 18 ELQ 1.
21. 2 trial programs for three cities): Ali P and Yano K, Eco-Finance: The Legal Design and Regulation of Market-Based Environmental Instruments (Kluwer Law International, 2004) p 11.
22. Kirk J, "Emissions Trading in California" (2008) 26 (4) VELJ 547 at 557-564;
23. Hahn R and Hester G, "Marketable Permits: Lessons for Theory and Practice" (1989) 16 ELQ 361.
24. Pub. L. no. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399 (1990)
25. (codified at 42 U. S. C. § 7401 (Supp. 1991)).
26. The availability of low-sulfur coal at low cost was thought to be important by some: Ackerman F and Moomaw W, "SO2 Emissions Trading: Does It Work?" (1997) 10 (7) Elec J 61;
27. Bohi D and Burtraw D, "SO2 Allowance Trading: How Do Expectations and Experience Measure Up?" (1997) 10 (7) Elec J 67 at 71-72.
28. l4 Toke D, "Trading Schemes, Risks, and Costs: The Cases of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme and the Renewables Obligation" (2008) 26 Env & P C: Gov and Pol 938 at 941.
29. See, eg Dickey S, "Emissions Trading: What Works?" in Gumley and Daya-Winterbottom, n 3, pp 64-66;
30. Environmental Protection Agency, Clearing the Air: The Facts About Capping and Trading Emissions (Environment Protection Agency, 2002);
31. Profeta T and Daniels B, Design Principles of a Cap and Trade Scheme for Greenhouse Gases (Duke University, 2005) p 2.
32. Christoff P, "Can the Invisible Hand Adjust the Thermostat? Carbon Emissions Trading and Australia" in Bonyhady T and Christoff P (eds), Climate Law in Australia (Federation Press, 2007) p 90;
33. l8 These "flexibility mechanisms" allowed developed countries to meet their emissions reduction obligations by trading emissions allowances amongst themselves (under the Emissions Trading mechanism in Art 17), and by financing emissions reduction projects in other developed and non-developed countries (the Joint Implementation and Clean Development Mechanisms, Arts 6 and 12): Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, open for signature 10 December 1997, 37 ILM 32 (1998) (entered into force 16 February 2005) (Kyoto Protocol).
34. Garnaut R, The Garnaut Climate Change Review (Cambridge University Press, 2008) pp 337-340.
35. 2 Emissions Trading System" (2000) 9 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 223;
36. 2 Cap and Trade Scheme: Function and Experiences (SERC Workshop, Tokyo, 29 October 2002).
37. Sorrell S, "The UK Emissions Trading Scheme" in Kim YG, Haites EF, Sorrell S, Jung TY, Morthurst PE, Lee MK and Lim JS, Domestic Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Schemes (Korea Environmental Institute, 2003).
38. "Directive 2003/87/EC Establishing a Scheme for Greenhouse Gas Emission Allowance Trading within the Community, in Respect of the Kyoto Protocol's Project Mechanisms" [2004] OJ L 338.
39. Haywood C, "The European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme: International Emissions Trading Lessons for the Copenhagen Protocol and Implications for Australia?" (2009) 26 EPLJ 310 at 312.
40. Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, About RGGI, http://www.rggi.ore/about viewed 5 February 2010.
41. Western Climate Initiative, About the WC1, http://www. westemclimateinitiative.org/about-the-wei viewed 5 February 2010.
42. Climate Change Response (Emissions Trading) Amendment Act 2008 (NZ).
43. See also the groundbreaking Chicago Climate Exchange: http://www.chicagoclimatex.com/index.isf viewed 5 February 2010.
44. See the American Clean Energy and Security Act 2009 HR 2454.
45. Steketee M, "Cool Compromise", The Australian (online) (9 May 2009), http://www.theaustralian. news.com.au/story/0, 25197.25449693-5013457, 00.html viewed 5 February 2010.
46. See National Emissions Trading Taskforce, Possible Design for a National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading Scheme: A Discussion Paper (National Emissions Trading Taskforce, 2006).
47. The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme: Electricity Supply Act 1995 (NSW)
48. as amended by Electricity Supply Amendment (Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction) Act 2002 (NSW).
49. Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading, Report of the Task Group on Emissions Trading (Department of Prime Minister'and Cabinet, Australian Government, 2007).
50. This is an important part of the Australian Greens' support for an emissions trading scheme: Bob Brown, Address to Melbourne University Students (Speech delivered at Melbourne University, 28 April 2009).
51. Baldwin R, "Regulation Lite: Emissions Trading" (2008) 2 (2) Reg & Gov 193 at 193;
52. Tom Tietenberg has compiled an extremely useful bibliography on this topic, see http://www.colby.edu/personal/t/thtieten/trade.html viewed 5 February 2010.
53. Driesen D, "Neoliberal Instrument Choice" in Driesen DM (ed), Economic Thought and US Climate Change Policy (MIT Press, 2009);
54. Lyster R", (De) regulating the Rural Environment" (2002) 19 (1) EPLJ 34.
55. European Commission, Leading Global Action to 2020 and Beyond (European Commission, 2008) p 16;
56. Seccombe-Hett T, "Market-based Instruments" (2000) 1 World Ecol 101 at 102;
57. Yelin-Kefer J, "Warming Up to an International Greenhouse Gas Market: Lessons from the US Acid Rain Experience" (2001) 20 Stan ELJ 221 at 225-231;
58. Stavins R, "Experience with Market-based Environmental Instruments" in Mäler KG and Vincent MR (eds), Handbook of Environmental Economics (Elsevier, 2003) p 1;
59. Ackerman BA and Stewart RB, "Reforming Environmental Law" (1985) 37 Stan ELR 1333;
60. Lyster R, "The Australian Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: What Role for Complementary Emissions Reduction Regulatory Measures?" (2008) 31 UNSWLJ 880 at 881.
61. Tietenberg T, "The Tradeable Permits Approach to Protecting the Commons" in Helm D (ed), Climate Change Policy (Oxford University Press, 2005) p 168;
62. Lyster R, "Chasing Down the Climate Change Footprint of the Private and Public Sectors: Forces Converge" (2007) 24 EPLJ 281 at 285;
63. Macintosh S, "The Greenhouse Trigger - Where Did it Go and What of its Future?" in Bonyhady and Christoff, n 17, p 60.
64. Pub. L. no. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399 (1990)
65. (codified at 42 U. S. C. § 7401 (Supp. 1991)).
66. Hardin G, "The Tragedy of the Commons" (1968) 162 (3859) Science 1243.
67. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, A/CONF.151/26 (Vol I) (1992) Principle 16;
68. Council of Australian Governments, Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment (1992) cl 3.5.4;
69. Sands P, Principles of International Environmental Law (Cambridge University Press, 2003) p 253;
70. Nicholas Stern called climate change the greatest example of market failure we have ever seen: HM Treasury, Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change (HM Treasury, 2006) p 1.
71. Jaffe A and Stavins R, "Dynamic Incentives of Environmental Regulation: The Effects of Alternative Policy Instruments on Technology Diffusion" (1995) 29 JEEM 43;
72. Jung C, Krutilla K and Boyd R, "Incentives for Advanced Pollution Abatement Technology at the Industry Level: An Evaluation of Policy Alternatives" (1996) 30 JEEM 95;
73. Hirsch J, "Emissions Allowance Trading Under the Clean Air Act: A Model for Future Environmental Regulations?" (1999) 7 NYUELJ 352 at 354-355;
74. See, eg the EU Linking directive, n 22.
75. Ellerman and Harrison point out that the large cost differentials between reducing emissions in different places make carbon emissions reduction particularly suited to cap and trade: n 5, p vii. See also Betz R and McGill I, Emissions Trading for Australia: Design, Transition and Linking Options (University of New South Wales, 2005).
76. Clo S, "The Effectiveness of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme" (2009) 9 Climate Policy 227;
77. Ellerman AD and Joskow P, The European Union's Emissions Trading System in Perspective (Pew Centre on Global Climate Change, 2008).
78. Department of Climate Change, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: White Paper (Australian Government, 2008) pp 6-10.
79. The term was coined by Schumpeter J, in Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (Allen & Unwin, 1942).
80. Pearse G, High and Dry (Penguin Group (Australia), 2007) p 117.
81. Banks G, "Promoting Better Environmental Outcomes: An Introduction" (Opening remarks to the Productivity Commission Conference, Canberra, 20 August 2008) p 8: "Governments still have to set the rules of the game and arc subject to lobbying".
82. This includes the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 HR 2454, the Western Climate Initiative, the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, and all of the schemes discussed in Ellerman and Harrison, n 5.
83. Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF), Australian Council of Social Services and Choice, Energy and Equity: Preparing Households for Climate Change: Efficiency, Equity, Immediacy (ACF, ACOSS, Choice, 2008) pp 5, 9.
84. Wilder M and Miller M, "Carbon Trading Markets: Legal Considerations" in Bonyhady and Christoff, n 17, pp 67, 90;
85. McGrath C, "Australia's Draft Climate Laws" (2009) 26 EPLJ 267 at 291. So, too, does the generous concessions made to industry, which might suggest that the government wants to get business on board from the beginning, and "toughen up" their approach later.
86. Those who have taken this view include the Prime Minister's Task Group on Emissions Trading (n 32, p 137), the Australian Industry Group (Submission to the National Renewable Energy Target Scheme, 18 August 2008, p 1)
87. the Institute of Public Affairs, the Productivity Commission (What Role for Policies to Supplement an Emissions Trading Scheme? Productivity Commission Submission to the Garnaut Climate Change Review, 2008)
88. Bonyhady T, "The New Australian Climate Law" in Bonyhady and Christoff, n 17, p 24;
89. Driesen D, The Economic Dynamics of Environmental Law (MIT Press, 2003);
90. Gunningham N and Young M, "Toward Optimal Environmental Policy: The Case of Biodiversity Conservation" (1997) 24 (2) ELQ 243 at 298;
91. Gunningham N and Sinclair D, "Integrative Regulation: A Principle-Based Approach to Environmental Policy" (1999) 24 (4) L&SI 853 at 861.
92. Sorrell S and Sijm J, "Carbon Trading in the Policy Mix" in Helm, n 43, p 196.
93. See, generally, Howlett M, "Beyond Good and Evil in Policy Implementation: Instrument Mixes, Implementation Styles, and Second Generation Theories of Policy Instrument Choice" (2004) 23 (2) P&S 1.
94. This flaw afflicts the Clean Development Mechanism: Lim J and Streek C, "Mobilising Finance for Climate Change Mitigation: Private Sector Involvement in International Carbon Finance Mechanisms" (2009) 10 MJIL 70.
95. Department of Climate Change, Quarterly Update of Australia's National Greenhouse Gas Inventory, March Quarter 2009 (Australian Government) p 3;
96. Department of Climate Change, Tracking to the Kyoto Target: Australia's Greenhouse Emissions Trends 1990 to 2008-2012 and 2020 (Australian Government, 2008) p 5.
97. See Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth) Pt 3, Div 4;
98. Fisher C, "Innovation and Emissions Trading Schemes" in Hansjurgens B (ed), Emissions Trading for Climate Policy: US and European Perspectives (Cambridge University Press, 2005) p 44;
99. Schwarze R, "Incentives to Innovate in US and EU" in Hansjurgens, n 91, p 55.
100. Driesen D, "Does Emissions Trading Encourage Innovation?" (2003) 33 ELR 10094;
101. Laffont J-J and Tirole J, "Pollution Permits and Environmental Innovation" (1996) 62 JPE 127;
102. Montero J-P, "Permits, Standards, and Technology Innovation" (2002) 44 JEEM 23;
103. Malueg D, "Emission Credit Trading and the Incentive to Adopt New Pollution Abatement Technology" (1989) 16 JEEM 52.
104. Montero J-P, "Marketable Pollution Permits with Uncertainty and Transactions Costs" (1998) 20 (1) JREE 27.
105. Renewable Energy (Electricity) Act 2000 (Cth);
106. Department of Climate Change, Renewable Energy Target (Australian Government, 2009), http://www.climatechange.gov. au/government/initiatives/ renewable-target.aspx viewed 8 February 2010.
107. See, eg Climate Change (Emissions Trading and Renewable Preference) Act 2008 (NZ)
108. which inserted Pt 6A into the Electricity Act 1992 (NZ) placing a moratorium on all new thermal power stations - now repealed.
109. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 31.
110. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 32.
111. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 33, 33A, 35, 37.
112. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 5.
113. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Div 4: see "provisional emissions number".
114. California adopted the "Pavley Standards" in 2002 (Assembly Bill 1493) and the Low Carbon Fuel Standard in 2007 (Executive Order S-01-07).
115. Thirteen other States have adopted the Californian standards: California Air Resources Board, Comparison of Greenhouse Gas Reductions for the United States and Canada Under the US CAFE Standards and California Air Resources Board Greenhouse Gas Regulations (2008) p 1.
116. The White House, President Obama Announces National Fuel Efficiency Policy (media release, US Government, 19 May 2009).
117. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 93.
118. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89.
119. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 191.
120. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 110, 121.
121. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89.
122. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89: the price for 2012-13 will be $40, rising by 5% each subsequent year.
123. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89 (6).
124. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89 (5).
125. Explanatory Memorandum, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth) p 105;
126. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89 (2): "Person's emissions number for the vintage year - Total number of eligible emissions units surrendered by the person in relation to the vintage year".
127. At the time of writing, EU Allowances were trading at around 15 euro - about A$25 (PointCarbon, "Carbon Market Europe", PointCarbon News (online) (30 October 2009) p 2)
128. which is more than double the fixed price for AEUs in the first year of the CPRS: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89.
129. However, there are a number of avenues though which such caps might be imposed by regulation: see, eg Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 113, 122, 123.
130. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 14.
131. Wong P (Minister for Climate Change and Water), A New Target for Reducing Australia's Carbon Pollution (media release, Australian Government, 4 May 2009).
132. It is also worth noting the Government's stated target of a 60% reduction from 1990 levels by 2050, which is already lower than the IPCC's recommended cut of 80-95%: Gupta S and Tirpak DA, "Policies, Instruments and Co-operative Arrangements" in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change (IPCC Working Group III, 2007) pp 745, 776.
133. Flannery T, "Now or Never: A Sustainable Future for Australia" (2008) 31 QE 9.
134. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report; Contribution of Working Groups I, II and II to the Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) (Fourth Assessment Report).
135. Fourth Assessment Report, n 145, p 67.
136. Fourth Assessment Report, n 145, p 20.
137. This will inflict serious impacts on the global climate: Schneider S, Scmenov S and Patwardhan A, "Assessing Key Vulnerabilities and the Risk from Climate Change" in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Working Group II, IPCC, 2007) pp 780-810.
138. Hansen J, Sato M, Kharecha P, Beerling D, Berner R, Masson-Delmotte V, Pagani M, Raymo M, Royer DL and Zachos JC, "Target Atmospheric CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim?" (2008) 2 Open Atmospheric Science Journal 217;
139. Ramanathan V and Feng Y, "On Avoiding Dangerous Anthropogenic Interference with the Climate System: Formidable Challenges Ahead" (2008) 105 PONAS 14245;
140. Adam D, "Roll Back Time to Safeguard Climate, Expert Warns", Guardian Online (15 September 2008), http://www.guardian. co.uk/environment/ 2008/sep/15/climatechanee.carbonemissions viewed 8 February 2010.
141. 2eq stabilization concentration has a 26-78% (most likely 54%) probability of exceeding 2°C warming relative to pre-industrial levels).
142. l52 Gunningham N and Grabosky P, Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy (Oxford University Press, 1998) pp 26-27;
143. Davis G and Bridgman P, The Australian Policy Handbook (3rd ed, Allen & Unwin, 2006) p 6.
144. citing Bell W and Drexhage J, "Climate Change and the International Carbon Market" (IISD, 2005) p 1.
145. Flanncry T and Rowley N, "The Nation Reviewed" (2009) 5 The Monthly 12.
146. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 14 (2) - (3).
147. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 15 (2) - (3).
148. The strictness of this mandate has been upheld in the context of freedom of information (Freedom of Information Act 1981 (Cth), s 15 (5);
149. Chu v Telstra Corporation Ltd (2005) 147 FCR 505))
150. corporate law (Miller v DCT (1997) 26 ACSR 533 at 540 (Herron D C J))
151. and migration law (MIMIA v Al Masri (2003) 126 FCR 54;
152. 73 ALD 609 at 612-613 (Black CJ, Sundberg and Weinberg JJ)).
153. Other Commonwealth laws include similar provisions: see, eg Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth), s 151 BUAAA (1);
154. Interactive Gambling Act 2001 (Cth), s 69A (2).
155. Explanatory Memorandum, n 131, pp 137, 79, 80.
156. It is likely that this requirement will be interested as a jurisdictional fact, rather than a matter for the satisfaction of the Minister herself: see City of Enfield v Development Assessment Commission (2000) 199 CLR 135;
157. 106 LGERA 419.
158. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 1990: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 1990);
159. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Second Assessment: Climate Cliange 1995: A Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 1995);
160. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. A Contribution of Working Groups I. II and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2001);
161. Fourth Assessment Report, n 145.
162. Leary D, "From Bali to Poznan: An Assessment of Australia's Response to Climate Change in 2008" (2009) 26 EPLJ 190 at 194.
163. Richardson K, Steffen W, Schellnhuber HJ, Alcamo J, Barker T, Kammen DM, Leemans R, Liverman D, Munasinghe M, Osman-Elasha B, Stern N and Waiver O, Synthesis Report: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions (Report of the Copenhagen Scientific Congress, 2009).
164. Unless, of course, it was impossible for the Minister to make the regulations, in which case the "all reasonable steps" test would actually provide some protection: see, eg Miller v DCT (1997) 26 ACSR 533 at 540 where Herron DCJ exonerated the defendants because "from a practical point of view there were no steps which they could have taken in all the peculiar circumstances".
165. Gordon J, "Changes 'Lock in Polluter Paradise'", The Age (online) (25 October 2009), http://www.theaee.com.au/national/chanees-lock-in- polluter-paradise-20091024-he4d.html viewed 8 February 2010.
166. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Dill 2009 (Cth), cl 94. It also deems Kyoto units and non-Kyoto international emissions units to be personal property for the purposes of bankruptcy and wills etc: ccll 116B-BA, 122A-AA.
167. Explanatory Memorandum, n 131, p 88.
168. For example, neither the EU ETS or the RGGI (Godden L, Peel J and Kallies A, Submission to the Green Paper on a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (2008)); nor the Acid Rain Trading Scheme (Ellerman and Harrison, n 5, p 12);
169. nor the LA RECLAIM scheme (Austin S, "Tradable Emissions Programs: Implications Under the Takings Clause" (1996) 26 EL 323) did this.
170. Minister for the Army v Dalziel (1944) 68 CLR 261 at 290 per Starke J, see also 285 per Rich J, 295 per McTiernan J.
171. New South Wales v Commonwealth (1948) 76 CLR 1 (Bank Nationalisation Case) at 349 per Dixon J.
172. Australian Tape Manufacturers Assn Ltd v Commonwealth (1993) 176 CLR 480 at 509 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane and Gaudron JJ.
173. Wurridjal v Commonwealth (2009) 237 CLR 309;
174. 169 LGERA 108 at [92]-[93] per French CJ, [171] per Gummow and Hayne JJ, [132]
175. per Crennan J; Attorney-General (NT) v Chaffey (2007) 231 CLR 651 at 664
176. per Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ; The Commonwealth v WMC Resources Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 1 at 16-17 per Brennan CJ, 36 per Gaudron J, 70 per Gummow J, 91-92 per Kirby J.
177. Wurridjal v Commonwealth (2009) 237 CLR 309;
178. 169 LGERA 108 at [93] per French CJ.
179. Health Insurance Commission v Peverill (1994) 179 CLR 226 at 244 per Brennan J.
180. See, eg Wurridjal v Commonwealth (2009) 237 CLR 309;
181. 169 LGERA 108;
182. Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 513.
183. Health Insurance Commission v Peverill (1994) 179 CLR 226 at 237 per Mason CJ, Deane and Gaudron JJ;
184. Georgiadis v Australian and Overseas Telecommunications Corporation (1994) 179 CLR 297 at 306 per Mason CJ, Deane and Gaudron JJ;
185. Attorney-General (NT) v Chaffey (2007) 231 CLR 651 at 664 per Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ.
186. Georgiadis v Australian and Overseas Telecommunications Corporation (1994) 179 CLR 297 at 304 per Mason CJ, Deane and Gaudron JJ, with whom Brennan J separately agreed.
187. See Telstra Corporation v Commonwealth (2008) 234 CLR 226, where the context of telecommunications regulation in Australia was crucial to the final decision.
188. So much is expressly contemplated by Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 103B.
189. Godden L, "Governing Common Resources: Environmental Markets and Property in Water" in McHarg A, Barton B, Bradbrook A and Godden L (eds), Property and the Law in Energy and Natural Resources (Oxford University Press, 2010).
190. See also the amendments which, at the time of writing, the Opposition had submitted for the CPRS: Maiden S, "Penny Wong to Hold Talks with Opposition over ETS", The Australian (online) (19 October 2009), http://www.theaustralian. news.com.au/storv/0.25197.26228600-11949.00.html viewed 8 February 2010.
191. See Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89, discussed below.
192. See Health Insurance Commission v Peverill (1994) 179 CLR 226 at 244 per Brennan J.
193. See provision for prices in future years: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 89.
194. Attorney-General (NT) v Chaffey (2007) 231 CLR 651 at 662 per Gleeson CJ, Gummow, Hayne and Crennan JJ;
195. see also Telstra Corporation Ltd v Commonwealth (2008) 234 CLR 210 at 234 per curiam: "always subject to a statutory access regime which permitted other carriers to use the assets in question".
196. Compare Commonwealth v WMC Resources Ltd (1998) 194 CLR 1, in which Brennan CJ (at 20) and Gaudron J (at 38) in the majority held that no benefit was acquired, contra Toohey (at 31) and Kirby JJ (97) who dissented. Justices McHugh and Gummow, also in the majority, decided on other grounds.
197. See Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 10, Divs 4-5.
198. See generally Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 9.
199. The legislation provides scope to do so: see Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 109, 110, 120, 121, 123.
200. Compare Waterhouse v Minister of the Arts (1993) 43 FCR 175;
201. 119 ALR 89.
202. Mutual Pools and Staff Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1994) 179 CLR 155 at 189 per Deane and Gaudron JJ;
203. Nintendo Co Ltd v Centronic Systems Pty Ltd (1994) 181 CLR 134 at 161 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ.
204. The other exception applies where the acquisition is supported by a head of power which clearly encompasses the acquisition of property, such as the notion of just terms compensation is rendered irrelevant or incongruous: Mutual Pools and Staff Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1994) 179 CLR 155 at 180-181 per Brennan J, 188 per Deane and Gaudron JJ, 219-220 per McHugh J;
205. Nintendo Co Ltd v Centronic Systems Pty Ltd (1994) 181 CLR 134 at 161 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ. None of the heads of power supporting the CPRS Bill (external affairs, trade and commerce, corporations) fit this criterion.
206. Nintendo Co Ltd v Centronic Systems Pty Ltd (1994) 181 CLR 134 at 161 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane, Toohey, Gaudron and McHugh JJ;
207. Australian Tape Manufacturers Assn Ltd v Commonwealth (1993) 176 CLR 480 at 510 per Mason CJ, Brennan, Deane and Gaudron JJ;
208. Mutual Pools and Staff Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1994) 179 CLR 155 at 189 per Deane and Gaudron JJ.
209. Health Insurance Commission v Peverill (1994) 179 CLR 297;
210. see Mutual Pools and Staff Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1994) 179 CLR 155 at 190 per Deane and Gaudron JJ.
211. Georgiadis v Australian and Overseas Telecommunications Corporation (1994) 179 CLR 297.
212. Nintendo Co Ltd v Centronic Systems Pty Ltd (1994) 181 CLR 134.
213. It also applies where a confiscation is imposed as a penalty: Re Director of Public Prosecutions; Ex p Lawler (1994) 179 CLR 226.
214. Compare Georgiadis v Australian and Overseas Telecommunications Corporation (1994) 179 CLR 297;
215. Nintendo Co Ltd v Centronic Systems Pty Ltd (1994) 181 CLR 134.
216. Note, however, that fully-fledged property rights have been revoked under this exception before: Re Director of Public Prosecutions; Ex p Lawler (1994) 179 CLR 155.
217. Fisher DE, "Markets, Water Rights and Sustainable Development" (2006) 23 EPLJ 100 at 101, 110.
218. Jos Debelke, the European Commission's Deputy Director-General for the Environment, said recently that the strict compliance mechanisms that emissions trading schemes require cannot be handled at a UN level, pointing out that Canada is "way behind" its Kyoto target: "Carbon Market Europe" (2009) 8 (42) Point Carbon News 3-4. See also Giddens, n 4, p 197.
219. See Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 327 (4) - (5).
220. See also Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 21.
221. See, eg Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 50A (2), 52(3), 53.
222. See also National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007 (Cth), ss 12, 19, 22.
223. If they knowingly, recklessly or negligently failed to take reasonable steps to prevent the breach, and were in a position to do so: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth); cl 324 (subject to a "reasonable steps" defence: cl 325).
224. See, eg providing a false or misleading emissions report: National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007 (Cth), s 19;
225. Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth), Sch 1, Div 137.
226. See also Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 160, 161.
227. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 23.
228. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 340-341.
229. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 133 (see also cll 129-132).
230. 2l6 Godden L, Peel J, Rallies A and Power M, Submission to the Exposure Draft Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth) (2009) p 4.
231. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 133.
232. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cll 142, 145.
233. See ASIC v Petsas (2005) 23 ACLC 269 at [2] per Finkelstein J;
234. Ramsay I, Hanrahan P and Stapledon G, Commercial Applications of Company Law (3rd ed, CCH Australia, 2002) pp 272-274.
235. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 133.
236. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 133.
237. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 133.
238. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 133 (2).
239. It imposes no immediate liability, allowing liable entities to let their "make good" debt escalate to a level where the government is obliged to "bail them out" (which, for an important utility provider, recent experience suggests they would). Similar concerns have been expressed in an American context: Golden K, "Senate Bill 1078: The Renewable Portfolio Standard - California Asserts its Renewable Energy Leadership" (2003) 30 ELQ 693 at 704.
240. Banks, n 66. Business are paying close attention to the CPRS: see, eg Australian Industry Group, CPRS While Paper: What are the Implications for Business? (AIG, 2008).
241. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 95, Pt 7.
242. National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting Act 2007 (Cth), ss 12, 19, which functions will be passed from the Greenhouse and Energy Data Office to ACCRA.
243. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 8.
244. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 347.
245. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 350.
246. See Douglas R, Administrative Law (5th ed, Federation Press, 2006) p 235.
247. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 346.
248. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 346, item 29.
249. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 347.
250. Note, however, that appeal to the AAT is open to "persons whose interests are affected" under s 27 of the Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth), which gives standing to organisations whose objects or purposes include those interests which are affected.
251. But not in the formal sense, as in Kioa v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1985) 159 CLR 550
252. which requires applicants to demonstrate that the decision "destroy[s], defeat[s] or prejudice[s] [their] rights, interests or legitimate expectations": Annetts v McCann (1990) 170 CLR 596 at 598 per Mason CJ, Deane and McHugh JJ, affirming the statement of Mason J in Kioa at 584.
253. Preston B, "The Role of Public Interest Environmental Litigation" (2006) 23 EPLJ 337 at 346.
254. See Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth), s 27 (1)
255. discussed in Transurban Citylink Ltd v Allan (1999) 95 FCR 553;
256. 105 LGERA 427;
257. compare Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1975 (Cth), s 27 (2);
258. Victorian Civil and Administrative Appeals Tribunal Act 1998 (Vic), s 5.
259. For a provocative take on this imbalance, see Stone C, Should Trees Have Standing? - Toward Legal Rights for Natural Objects (Tioga Pub Co, 1974).
260. In administrative law, procedural fairness requires that each party have an opportunity to present their case: Re Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance; Ex p Hoyts Corp Pty Ltd (1994) 68 ALJR 179;
261. Sullivan v Department of Transport (1978) 1 ALD 383;
262. 20 ALR 323 at 343 per Deane J;
263. Allesch v Maunz (2000) 203 CLR 172 at [38]-[39] per Kirby J;
264. Victims Compensation Fund Corp v Nguyen (2001) 52 NSWLR 213 at [37] per Mason P (with whom Handley and Powell JJA agreed);
265. Forge v Australian Securities and Investments Commission (2004) 213 ALR 574 at [11] per McColl JA (with whom Handley and Santow JJA agreed).
266. Indeed, while a tribunal need not make a party's case for them, they must not proceed if that would deny them the opportunity to be heard: Mayes v Mayes [1971] 1 WLR 679 at 682 per Bagnall J;
267. Hall v New South Wales Trotting Club Ltd [1977] 1 NSWLR 378 (CA) at 382-383 per Hutley JA;
268. Escobar v Spindaleri (1986) 7 NSWLR 51 (CA).
269. Sassella M, "Commentary: Administrative Law - Developments under a Coalition Government" in McMillan J (ed), Administrative Law Under the Coalition Government (Australian Institute of Administrative Law, 1997) pp 65, 68 cited in Douglas, n 232, p 240.
270. See, eg Onus v Alcoa of Australia Ltd (1981) 149 CLR 27 at 35-36 per Gibbs CJ, referring to the possibility of "abuse" by "busy bodies and cranks and persons actuated by malice".
271. Ogle v Strickland (1987) 13 FCR 306 at 323-324 per Wilcox J;
272. Australian Conservation Foundation Inc v Commonwealth (ACF No I) (1980) 146 CLR 493 at 557 per Murphy J, dissenting;
273. Zamir I, The Declaratory Judgment (Steven & Sons, 1962);
274. Haynes JV, "Michigan's Environment Protection Act in its 6th Year: Substantive Environment Law from Citizens Suits" (1976) 6 ELR 50-092.
275. Oshlack v Richmond River Council and Iron Gates Developments Pty Ltd (1994) 82 LGERA 236 at 245 per Stein J.
276. Cripps J, Report of the Land and Environment Court Working Party (NSWAG, 2001).
277. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pts 17, 19.
278. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 328
279. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), cl 343.
280. ACF v Commonwealth (1980) 146 CLR 493;
281. 45 LGRA 245;
282. Onus v Alcoa (1981) 149 CLR 27;
283. ACF v Minister for Resources (1989) 19 ALD 70;
284. 76 LGRA 200;
285. North Coast Environmental Council v Minister for Resources (1994) 55 FCR 492;
286. 85 LGERA 270.
287. ACF v Commonwealth (1980) 146 CLR 493;
288. 45 LGRA 245 at 526 (CLR) per Gibbs CJ.
289. Norton C, "Special Interest No Longer? Public Interest Standing in Australia Takes a New Turn" (2001) 6 (2) APJEL 185.
290. See, eg ACF v Minister for Resources (1989) 19 ALD 70;
291. 76 LGRA 200;
292. North Coast Environmental Council v Minister for Resources (1994) 55 FCR 492;
293. 85 LGERA 270.
294. The scale of global climate change has caused climate change litigants difficulty in the past: see Wildlife Preservation Society of Queensland Proserpine/Whitsunday Branch Inc v Minister for Environment and Heritage (2006) 93 ALD 84;
295. 32 ALR 510;
296. Peel J, "Climate Change Law: The Emergence of a New Legal Discipline" (2008) 32 (3) MULR 922 at 957-962.
297. Crumplar T, "An Alternative to Public and Victim Enforcement of the Federal Securities and Antitrust Laws: Citizen Enforcement" (1975) 13 HJL 76 at 96-99;
298. Macdonald A, "Power to the People: Public Enforcement of NSW Environmental Laws" (2000) Plaintiff 14;
299. Ramsay I, "Enforcement of Corporate Rights and Duties by Shareholders and the Australian Securities Commission: Evidence and Analysis" (1995) 23 ABLR 174;
300. McEwin R, "Public Versus Shareholder Control of Directors" (1992) 10 C&SLJ 182 at 183.
301. Briody M and Prenzler T, "The Enforcement of Environmental Protection Laws in Queensland: A Case Study of Regulatory Capture?" (1998) 15 EPLJ 54 at 55-56;
302. Gunningham N and Sinclair D, "New Generation Environmental Policy: Environmental Management Systems and Regulatory Reform" (1998) 22 MULR 592;
303. Sax J, Defending the Environment: A Handbook for Citizen Action (Vintage Books, 1971) p xviii;
304. Goldring J, "The Values Inherent in Judicial Review" (1989) CBPA 78 at 79.
305. Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth), ss 475, 487.
306. See Baird R, "Public Interest Litigation and the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act" (2008) 25 EPLJ 410.
307. Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1977 (NSW), s 123;
308. Berkahn M and Trotman L, "Public and Private Enforcement of Company Law in New Zealand 1986-1998" (2000) 7 Cant LR 516;
309. Cassidy A and Chappie L, "Australia's Corporate Disclosure Regime: Lessons from the US Model" (2003) 15 AJCL 81;
310. Mayanja J, "Promoting Enhanced Enforcement of Directors' Fiduciary Obligations: The Promise of Public Law Sanctions" (2007) 20 AJCL 157.
311. Trade Practices Act 1974 (Cth), s 80.
312. Truth About Motorways Pty Ltd v Macquarie Infrastructure Management Ltd (2000) 200 CLR 591 at 602 per Gaudron J
313. (citing Phelps v Western Mining Corporation Ltd (1978) 33 FLR 327 at 330-331 per Bowen CJ)
314. also 599 per Gleeson CJ and McHugh J. For more on the importance of this remedy, see Brunt M, "The Role of Private Actions in Australian Restrictive Trade Practices Enforcement" (1990) 17 MULR 582;
315. McCabe B, "Consumer Protection: The Truth about Private Enforcement of s 52" (2000) 8 TPLJ 180.
316. Rudd K, Australia's Low Pollution Future: Launch of Australian Government's White Paper on the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (speech delivered at National Press Club, Canberra, 15 December 2008).
317. Garnaut R, Climate Change as an Equity Issue (Sambell Oration, Fitzroy, 13 November 2008) p 3.
318. Mary Robinson has written that "climate change is about suffering - about the human misery that results directly from the damage we are doing to nature": International Council on Human Rights (ICHR), Climate Change and Human Rights: A Rough Guide (ICHR, 2008) p iii.
319. National Institute of Economic and Industry Research, The Impact of Carbon Prices on Victorian and Australian Households (NIEIR, 2007);
320. Brotherhood of St Laurence, Submission in Response to A Climate of Opportunity Summit Paper (2008);
321. Uniting Justice Australia, Submission to the Senate Standing Committee on Economics: Inquiry into the Exposure Draft of the Legislation to Implement the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (2009); ACF et al, n 71.
322. Victorian Government, Submission to the Garnaut Review on Climate Change (2008).
323. Department of Climate Change, Revised Fiscal Impact of the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) (Australian Government, 2009).
324. The Government has already taken action on some of these measures, particularly through the Energy Efficient Homes Package announced as part of the Nation Building - Economic Stimulus Plan: see Department of Climate Change, Supporting Households to Take Action (Australian Government, 2009), http://www.climatechange, gov. au/government/reduce.asox viewed 8 February 2010.
325. Exposure Draft, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Regulations 2009 (Cth).
326. See Department of Climate Change, Establishing the Eligibility of Activities under the Emissions-intensive Trade-exposed Assistance Program (Australian Government, 2009) pp 27-46.
327. Exposure Draft, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Regulations 2009 (Cth), r 907 (3).
328. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 9 - Coal-fired Electricity Generation.
329. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Dill 2009 (Cth), cl 176 (2).
330. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 9, Div 5 - Power System Reliability.
331. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), Pt 9, Div 4 - Windfall Gain.
332. Parry I, "Are Emissions Permits Regressive?" (2004) 47 JEEM 364.
333. Victor D and Cullenward D, "Making Carbon Markets Work" (2007) Scientific American 72;
334. Taralga Landscape Guardians Inc v Minister for Planning and RES Southern Cross (2007) 161 LGERA 1 at [73]-[73];
335. Oposa v Factoran, Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (GR No 101083, 30 July 1993) 33 ILM 173 (1994).
336. 3l2 Garnaut R, Garnaut Climate Change Review: Draft Report (2008) Ch 14 at [14.3.2].
337. See International Energy Agency, Issues Behind Competitiveness and Carbon Leakage: Focus on Heavy Industry (IEA, 2008).
338. Department of Climate Change, Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme: Green Paper (Australian Government, 2008) p 345;
339. 3l6 Gittins R, "Rudd Buys Off Business on Carbon Trading", The Sydney Morning Herald (online) (19 October 2009), http://www.smh.com.au/ business/rudd-buys-ofr-business-on-carbon-trading-20091018-h2vc.html viewed 8 February 2010.
340. Von Doussa J, "Human Rights and Climate Change: A Tragedy in the Making" (2008) 31 UNSWLJ 959;
341. ICHR, n 274, p 17.
342. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976) (ICCPR).
343. See National Human Rights Consultation Committee, National Human Rights Consultation: Report (2009).
344. For a comprehensive analysis of these, see Cordes-Holland O, "The Sinking of the Strait: The Implications of Climate Change for Torres Strait Islanders' Human Rights Protected by the ICCPR" (2008) 9 MJIL 405.
345. ICHR, n 274, pp 27-41.
346. Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC), Background Paper: Human Rights and Climate Change (HREOC, 2008) p 4.
347. There are two exceptions to this: African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, opened for signature 27 June 1981, 1520 UNTS 217 (entered into force on 21 October 1986) Art 24;
348. Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature 17 November 1988, OAS 69 (entered into force 16 November 1999) Art 11 (1).
349. Gabcikovo-Nagynmros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) 1997 ICJ 97 at 110 (separate opinion of Weeramantry J).
350. ICCPR, n 319, Art 6 (1);
351. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217A (III), 71, UN Doc A/810 (1948) Art 3.
352. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has recognised the link between a healthy environment and the right to life: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Ecuador, OAS Doc OEA/Ser. L/V/II.96, Doc 10, rev 1 (24 April 1997);
353. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Res No 12/85, Case No 7615 (5 March 1985). See also EHP v Canada (HRC 67/1980).
354. ICCPR, n 319, Art 9;
355. HREOC, n 328, p 9.
356. ICCPR, n 319, Art 17.
357. ICCPR, n 319, Art 12.
358. Not included in the ICCPR, this is a much-litigated right under the ECHR, and is included in the Victorian and ACT bills of rights: see Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) s 20;
359. Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT).
360. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976) (ICESCR), Art 12 (a).
361. ICCPR, n 319, Art 11 (a).
362. UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General comment No 15 - The Right to Water (2002) UN Doc E/C.12/2002/11.
363. Green D (CSIRO), How Might Climate Change Affect Island Culture in the Torres Strait? (CSIRO, 2006);
364. Green G (CSIRO), Climate Change and Health: Impacts on Remote Indigenous Communities in Northern Australia (CSIRO, 2006).
365. Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, opened for signature 7 March 1966, 660 UNTS 195 (entered into force 4 January 1969) (CERD).
366. See, eg Kohen J, "Knowing Country: Indigenous Australians and the Land" in Selin H and Kalland A (eds), Nature Across Cultures: Views of Nature and the Environment in Non-western Cultures (Kluwer, 2003) p 229;
367. Cobo J (UN Special Rapporteur), Study of the Problem of Discrimination Against Indigenous Populations (United Nations, 1987).
368. ICCPR, n 319, Art 27;
369. ICCPR, n 319, Art 1;
370. ICESCR, n 337, Art I;
371. Guerra v Italy (1998) 1 Eur Ct Hr 210. Those cases are consistent with the equivalent right under the ICCPR, though there have been no similar cases before the HRC.
372. Petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United Slates, submitted by Watt-Cloutier S, with the Support of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, on behalf of all Inuit of the Arctic regions of the United States and Canada (7 December 2005).
373. ICHR, n274, p 42.
374. ICCPR, n319, Art 26.
375. ICCPR, n 319, Arts 2, 26.
376. Wackenheim v France (HRC 854/99). See generally Joseph S, Schultz J and Castan M, The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Cases, Materials and Commentary (Oxford University Press, 2004) pp 694-697.
377. ICCPR, n 319, Art 2 (1);
378. ICCPR, n 319, Art 2 (2).
379. Exactly how it does so is a matter for the Government: UN Human Rights Committee, General Conunent 31, CCPR/C/21/Rev. l/Add.l3 [13]-[14].
380. ICCPR, n319, Art 2 (3).
381. The breach of an international obligation is non-justiciable in Australian courts at the suit of an individual: Tasmanian Wilderness Society Inc v Fraser (1982) 153 CLR 270;
382. 48 LGRA 300 at 274 (CLR) per Mason J;
383. Re East; Ex p Nguyen (1998) 196 CLR 354;
384. Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292 at 305-306 per Mason CJ and McHugh J, 321 per Brennan J, 348 per Dawson J, 359-360 per Toohey J;
385. Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade v Magno (1992) 37 FCR 298;
386. Victoria v Commonwealth (1996) 187 CLR 416 at 480-482 per Brennan CJ, Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ;
387. Sinanovic v The Queen (1998) 154 ALR 702 at 707;
388. Minogue v Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1999) 84 FCR 438.
389. Chow Hung Ching v The King (1948) 77 CLR 449 at 462, 471, 477 per Latham CJ, Starke and Dixon JJ respectively;
390. Jago v District Court of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 558;
391. Re Jane (1988) 94 FLR 1.
392. ICCPR, n 319, Art 41.
393. Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 302 (entered into force 23 March 1976) Art 1. Australia acceded to the Optional Protocol on 25 September 1991. Cordes-Holland, n 321 at 437, considers that such a claim would have "strong legal merit".
394. Lawyers in the Inuit Case thought that a decision of the Inter-American Human Rights Commission, though legally non-binding, could have a powerful influence on policy and law in the United States: Goldberg D and Wagner M, Petitioning for Adverse Impacts of Global Warming in the Inter-American Human Rights System (Centre for International Environmental Law, 2002) p 15.
395. HREOC, n 328, p 15;
396. ICHR, n 274, pp 6-7.
397. Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic), ss 28-30;
398. Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT), ss 37-39.
399. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), s 183.
400. Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Bill 2009 (Cth), s 195.
401. Gunaleela v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1987) 15 FCR 543;
402. Kioa v West (1985) 159 CLR 550;
403. Chan Yee Kin v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (1989) 169 CLR 379;
404. Irving v Minister for Immigration, Local Government and Ethnic Affairs (1993) 115 ALR 125;
405. Minister for Resources v Dover Fisheries Pty Ltd (1993) 43 FCR 565;
406. Chen v Minister for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs (No 2) (1994) 51 FCR 322;
407. Thanh Tra Lam v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (2006) 157 FCR 215;
408. Chong Mun Chai v Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs [2005] FCAFC 1460;
409. cf Bugdaycay v Secretary of State for the Home Department [1987] 1 All ER 940;
410. R v Secretary of State for the Home Department; Ex p Brind [1991] 1 AC 696;
411. R v Secretary of Slate for the Home Department; Ex p McQuillan [1995] 4 All ER 400;
412. R v Ministry of Defence; Ex p Smith [1996] QB 517.
413. The authority of this decision has since been cast into doubt. The Commonwealth released Joint Statements in 1995 and 1997, disavowing the "legitimate expectation" they were said to have created. However, Parliament did not approve these statements, making them no longer "joint". Accordingly, cases have differed as to whether the intention was in fact disavowed: in Re PW Adams Pty Ltd and Australian Fisheries Management Authority (No 2) (1995) 38 ALD 435
414. the AAT held yes, but this was doubted by Hill J in DIEA v Ram (1996) 69 FCR 432
415. and Wilcox J in MUA v MTRS (2000) 100 FCR 58. The case was further criticised (but not overturned) by the judgment in Re MIMA;
416. Ex p Lam (2003) 214 CLR 1.
417. Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562 at [193] per Kirby J, [238]-[239] per Hayne J, [289], [297]-[298] per Callinan J.
418. Polites v Commonwealth (1945) 70 CLR 60;
419. Coleman v Power (2004) 220 CLR I;
420. Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562;
421. Cornwell v The Queen (2007) 231 CLR 260;
422. Salomon v Cmrs of Customs and Excise [1967] 2 QB 116.
423. Re Bolton; Ex p Beane (1987) 162 CLR 514;
424. Coco v The Queen (1994) 179 CLR 427.
425. Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562 at [14] per Gleeson CJ.
426. Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic), s 32;
427. Hunum Rights Act 2004 (ACT), s 30;
428. Human Rights Act 1998 (UK), s 3;
429. New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 (NZ), s 6.
430. Ghaidan v Godin-Mcndoza [2004] 2 AC 557 at [29] per Lord Nicholls, [44] per Lord Steyn, [67] per Lord Millett;
431. Evans C and Evans S, Australian Bills of Rights (LexisNexis, 2008) p 93.
432. Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557 at [41] per Lord Steyn, [33] per Lord Nicholls, [121]-[122] per Lord Rodgers;
433. contra R v Hansen [2007] NZLR 1 at [15], [61], [150], [237], [252], [290].
434. Al-Kateb v Godwin (2004) 219 CLR 562 at [33] per McHugh J, [232], [241] per Hayne J (Heydon J concurring at [303]), [297]-[298] per Callinan J.
435. R v Hansen [2007] 3 NZLR I at [57]-[60] per Blanchard J, [88]-[92] per Tipping J, [192] per McGrath J.
436. Explanatory Memorandum, n 131, p 3.