Dietary anthocyanin-rich plants: Biochemical basis and recent progress in health benefits studies

Molecular Nutrition and Food Research

Volumn 56, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 159-170

  Tsuda, Takanori ^a  

^a CHUBU UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

Author keywords

Anthocyanin; Brain function; Diabetes; Eye vision; Obesity

Indexed keywords

ANTHOCYANIN; ANTIOXIDANT;

AGING; BRAIN; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CHEMISTRY; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DIET THERAPY; DRUG EFFECT; FOOD; HUMAN; METABOLISM; MYOPIA; OBESITY; PHYSIOLOGY; PLANT; REVIEW;

AGING; ANTHOCYANINS; ANTIOXIDANTS; BRAIN; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; FOOD; HUMANS; MYOPIA; OBESITY; PLANTS;

EID: 84855315675     PISSN: 16134125     EISSN: 16134133     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201100526     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Harborne, J. B., Grayer, R. J., in: Harborne, J.B. (Ed.), The Flavonoids, Chapman and Hall; London 1988, pp. 1-20.
2. Brouillard, R., in: Harborne, J.B., (Ed.), The Flavonoids. Chapman and Hall; London 1988, pp. 525-538.
3. Wu, X., Beecher, G. R., Holden, J. M., Concentration of anthocyanins in common food in the United States and estimation of normal consumption. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 4069-4075.
4. Ogawa, K., Sakakibara, H., Iwata, R., Ishii, T. et al., Anthocyanin composition and antioxidant activity of the Crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) and other berries. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 4457-4462.
5. de Pascural-Teresa, S., Moreno, D.-A., García-Viguera, C., Flavanols and anthocyanins in cardiovascular health: A review of current evidence. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2010, 11, 1679-1703.
6. Kuhnau, J., The flavonoids. A class of semi-essential food components: Their role in human nutrition. World Rev. Nutr. Dietet. 1976, 24, 117-191.
7. Chun, O. K., Chung, S. J., Song, W. O., Estimated dietary flavonoid intake and major food sources of U.S. adults. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 1244-1252.
8. McGhie, T. K., Walton, M. C., The bioavailability and absorption of anthocyanins: towards a better understanding. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51, 702-713.
9. Crozier, A., Jaganath, I. B., Clifford, M. N., Dietary phenolics: chemistry, bioavailability and effects on health. Nat. Prod. Rep. 2009, 26, 1001-1043.
10. Rio, D.-D., Borges, G., Crozier, A., Berry flavonoids and phenolics: bioavailability and evidence of protective effects. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, S67-S90.
11. Tsuda, T., Horio, F., Osawa, T., Absorption and metabolism of cyanidin 3-O-β-D-glucoside in rats. FEBS Lett. 1999, 449, 179-182.
12. Keppler, K., Humpf, H.-U., Metabolism of anthocyanis and their phenolic degradation products by the intestinal microflora. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2005, 13, 5195-5205.
13. Aura, A. M., Martin-Lopez, P., O'Leary, K.-A., Williamson, G. et al., In vitro metabolism of anthocyanins by human gut microflora. Eur. J. Nutr. 2005, 44, 133-142.
14. He, J., Magnuson, B. A., Giusti, M. M., Analysis of anthocyanins in rat intestinal contents - impact of anthocyanin chemical structure on fecal excretion. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 2859-2866.
15. Forester, S. C., Waterhouse, A. L., Identification of Cabernet Sauvignon anthocyanin gut microflora metabolites. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 9299-9304.
16. Forester, S. C., Waterhouse, A. L., Gut metabolites of anthocyanins, gallic acid, 3-O-methylgallic acid, and 2, 4, 6-trihydroxybenzaldehyde, inhibit cell proliferation of Caco-2 cells. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 5320-5327.
17. Avila, M., Hidalgo, M., Sanchez-Moreno, C., Pelaez, C. et al., Bioconversion of anthocyanin glycosides by Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus. Food Res. Int. 2009, 42, 1453-1461.
18. Gonthier, M. P., Cheynier, V., Donovan, J. L., Manach, C. et al., Microbial aromatic acid metabolites formed in the gut account for a major fraction of the polyphenols excreted in urine of rats fed red wine polyphenols. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 461-467.
19. Borges, G., Roowi, S., Rouanet, J. M., Duthie, G. G. et al., The bioavailability of raspberry anthocyanins and ellagitannins in rats. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2007, 51, 714-725.
20. Kay, C. D., Kroon, P. A., Cassidy, A., The bioactivity of dietary anthocyanins is likely to be mediated by their degradation products. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, S92-S101.
21. Vitaglione, P., Donnarumma, G., Napolitano, A., Galvano, F. et al., Protocatechuic acid is the major human metabolite of cyanidin-glucosides. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 2043-2048.
22. Kahle, K., Kraus, M., Scheppach, W., Ackermann, M. et al., Studies on apple and blueberry fruit constituents: do the polyphenols reach the colon after ingestion? Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2006, 50, 418-423.
23. Azzini, E., Vitaglione, P., Intorre, F., Napolitano, A. et al., Bioavailability of strawberry antioxidants in human subjects. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, 1165-1173.
24. Walton, M. C., McGhie, T. K., Reynolds, G. W., Hendriks, W. H., The flavonol quercetin-3-glucoside inhibits cyanidin-3-glucoside absorption in vitro. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 4913-4920.
25. Matsumoto, H., Ito, K., Yonekura, K., Tsuda, T. et al., Enhanced absorption of anthocyanins after oral administration of phytic acid in rats and humans. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 2489-2496.
26. Mullen, W., Edwards, C. A., Serafini, M., Crozier, A., Bioavailability of pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside and its metabolites in humans following the ingestion of strawberries with and without cream. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 713-719.
27. Walton, M. C., Lentle, R. G., Reynolds, G. W., Kruger, M. C. et al., Anthocyanin absorption and antioxidant status of pigs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 7940-7946.
28. Neilsen, I. L., Dargste, L. O., Rav-Haren, G., Freese, R. et al., Absorption and excretion of blackcurrant anthocyanins in humans and Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 2813-2820.
29. Nakaishi, H., Matsumoto, H., Tominaga, S., Hirayama, M., Effects of blackcurrant anthocyanosides intake on dark adaptation and VDT work-induced transient refractive alternation in healthy humans. Altern. Med. Rev. 2000, 5, 553-562.
30. Tsuda, T., Horio, F., Uchida, K., Aoki, H. et al., Dietary cyanidin 3-O-β-D-glucoside-rich purple corn color prevents obesity and ameliorates hyperglycemia in mice. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 2125-2130.
31. Tsuda, T., Regulation of adipocyte function by anthocyanins; possibility of preventing the metabolic syndrome. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 642-646.
32. Tsuda, T., Ueno, Y., Aoki, H., Koda, T. et al., Anthocyanin enhances adipocytokine secretion and adipocyte-specific gene expression in isolated rat adipocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2004, 316, 149-157.
33. Tsuda, T., Ueno, Y., Yoshikawa, T., Kojo, H. et al., Microarray profiling of gene expression in human adipocytes in response to anthocyanins. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2006, 71, 1184-1197.
34. Sasaki, R., Nishimura, N., Hoshino, H., Isa, Y. et al., Cyanidin 3-glucoside ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity due to downregulation of retinol binding protein 4 expression in diabetic mice. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2007, 74, 1619-1627.
35. Prior, R. L., Wu, X., Gu, L., Hager, T. J. et al., Whole berries versus berry anthocyanins: interactions with dietary fat levels in the C57BL/6J mouse model of obesity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 647-653.
36. Prior, R. L., Wilkes, S. E., Rogers, T. R., Khanal, R. C. et al., Purified blueberry anthocyanins and blueberry juice alter development of obesity in mice fed an obesogenic high-fat diet. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 3970-3976.
37. DeFuria, J., Bennett, G., Strissel, K. J., Perfield, J. W, 2nd. et al., Dietary blueberry attenuates whole-body insulin resistance in high fat-fed mice by reducing adipocyte death and its inflammatory sequelae. J. Nutr. 2009, 139, 1510-1516.
38. Prior, R. L., Wu, X., Gu, L., Hager, T. et al., Purified berry anthocyanins but not whole berries normalize lipid parameters in mice fed an obesogenic high fat diet. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, 1406-1418.
39. Prior, R. L., E Wilkes, S., R Rogers, T., Khanal, R. C. et al., Dietary black raspberry anthocyanins do not alter development of obesity in mice fed an obesogenic high-fat diet. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 3970-3976.
40. Peng, C. H., Liu, L. K., Chuang, C. M., Chyau, C. C. et al., Mulberry water extracts possess an anti-obesity effect and ability to inhibit hepatic lipogenesis and promote lipolysis. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 2663-2671.
41. Seymour, E. M., Lewis, S. K., Urcuyo-Llanes, D. E., Tanone, I. I. et al., Regular tart cherry intake alters abdominal adiposity, adipose gene transcription, and inflammation in obesity-prone rats fed a high fat diet. J. Med. Food. 2009, 12, 935-942.
42. Titta, L., Trinei, M., Stendardo, M., Berniakovich, I. et al., Blood orange juice inhibits fat accumulation in mice. Int. J. Obes. 2010, 34, 578-588.
43. Grace, M. H., Ribnicky, D. M., Kuhn, P., Poulev, A. et al., Hypoglycemic activity of a novel anthocyanin-rich formulation from lowbush blueberry, Vaccinium angustifolium Aiton. Phytomedicine 2009, 16, 406-415.
44. Takikawa, M., Inoue, S., Horio, F., Tsuda, T., Dietary anthocyanin-rich bilberry extract ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in diabetic mice. J. Nutr. 2010, 140, 527-533.
45. Yang, Q., Graham, T. E., Mody, N., Preitner, F. et al., Serum retinol binding protein 4 contributes to insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Nature 2005, 436, 356-362.
46. Hardie, D. G., Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in the metabolic syndrome and in heart disease. FEBS Lett. 2008, 582, 81-89.
47. Lehrke, M., Lazar, M. A., The many faces of PPARγ. Cell 2005, 123, 993-999.
48. Zhou, G., Myers, R., Li, Y., Chen, Y. et al., Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in mechanism of metformin action. J. Clin. Invest. 2001, 108, 1167-1174.
49. Sriwijitkamol, A., Coletta, D. K., Wajcberg, E., Balbontin, G. B. et al., Effect of acute exercise on AMPK signaling in skeletal muscle of subjects with type 2 diabetes: A time-course and dose-response study. Diabetes 2007, 56, 836-848.
50. Iwai, K., Kim, M. Y., Onodera, A., Matsue, H., Alpha-glucosidase inhibitory and antihyperglycemic effects of polyphenols in the fruit of Viburnum dilatatum Thunb. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 4588-4592.
51. Matsui, T., Ueda, T., Oki, T., Sugita, K. et al., alpha-Glucosidase inhibitory action of natural acylated anthocyanins. 1. Survey of natural pigments with potent inhibitory activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 1948-1951.
52. Matsui, T., Ueda, T., Oki, T., Sugita, K. et al., alpha-Glucosidase inhibitory action of natural acylated anthocyanins. 2. alpha-Glucosidase inhibition by isolated acylated anthocyanins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001, 49, 1952-1956.
53. Matsui, T., Ebuchi, S., Kobayashi, M., Fukui, K. et al., Anti-hyperglycemic effect of diacylated anthocyanin derived from Ipomoea batatas cultivar Ayamurasaki can be achieved through the alpha-glucosidase inhibitory action. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2002, 50, 7244-7248.
54. Matsui, T., Ebuchi, S., Fukui, K., Matsugano, K. et al., Caffeoylsophorose, a new natural alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, from red vinegar by fermented purple-fleshed sweet potato. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2004, 68, 2239-2246.
55. Terahara, N., Matsui, T., Fukui, K., Matsugano, K. et al., Caffeoylsophorose in a red vinegar produced through fermentation with purple sweetpotato. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 2539-2543.
56. Terahara, N., Matsui, T., Minoda, K., Nasu, K. et al., Functional new acylated sophoroses and deglucosylated anthocyanins in a fermented red vinegar. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 8331-8338.
57. Qiu, J., Saito, N., Noguchi, M., Fukui, K. et al., Absorption of 6-O-caffeoylsophorose and its metabolites in Sprague-Dawley rats detected by electrochemical detector-high-performance liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization-time-of-flight-mass spectrometry methods. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 6299-6304.
58. Rissanen, T. H., Voutilainen, S., Virtanen, J. K., Venho, B. et al., Low intake of fruits, berries and vegetables is associated with excess mortality in men: the Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor (KIHD) Study. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 199-204.
59. Mink, P. J., Scrafford, C. G., Barraj, L. M., Harnack, L. et al., Flavonoid intake and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective study in postmenopausal women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007, 85, 895-909.
60. Curtis, P. J., Kroon, P. A., Hollands, W. J., Walls, R. et al., Cardiovascular disease risk biomarkers and liver and kidney function are not altered in postmenopausal women after ingesting an elderberry extract rich in anthocyanins for 12 weeks. J. Nutr. 2009, 139, 2266-2271.
61. Erlund, I., Koli, R., Alfthan, G., Marniemi, J. et al., Favorable effects of berry consumption on platelet function, blood pressure, and HDL cholesterol. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 323-331.
62. Gupta, S., Sodhi, S., Mahajan, V., Correlation of antioxidants with lipid peroxidation and lipid profile in patients suffering from coronary artery disease. Exp. Opin. Ther. Targets 2009, 13, 889-894.
63. Castilla, P., Dávalos, A., Teruel, J. L., Cerrato, F. et al., Comparative effects of dietary supplementation with red grape juice and vitamin E on production of superoxide by circulating neutrophil NADPH oxidase in hemodialysis patients. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2008, 87, 1053-1061.
64. Ellingsen, I., Hjerkinn, E. M., Seljeflot, I., Arnesen, H. et al., Consumption of fruit and berries is inversely associated with carotid atherosclerosis in elderly men. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 99, 674-681.
65. Jin, Y., Alimbetov, D., George, T., Gordon, M. H. et al., A randomised trial to investigate the effects of acute consumption of a blackcurrant juice drink on markers of vascular reactivity and bioavailability of anthocyanins in human subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011, 65, 849-856.
66. Giordano, L., Coletta, W., Tamburrelli, C., D'Imperio, M. et al., Four-week ingestion of blood orange juice results in measurable anthocyanin urinary levels but does not affect cellular markers related to cardiovascular risk: a randomized cross-over study in healthy volunteers. Eur. J. Nutr. 2011, in press DOI: 10.1007/s00394-011-0237-9.
67. Garcia-Alonso, M., Minihane, A. M., Rimbach, G., Rivas-Gonzalo, J. C. et al., Red wine anthocyanins are rapidly absorbed in humans and affect monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 levels and antioxidant capacity of plasma. J. Nutr. Biochem. 2009, 20, 521-529.
68. Scarabelli, T. M., Mariotto, S., Abdel-Azeim, S., Shoji, K. et al., Targeting STAT1 by myricetin and delphinidin provides efficient protection of the heart from ischemia/reperfusion-induced injury. FEBS Lett. 2009, 583, 531-541.
69. Mauray, A., Felgines, C., Morand, C., Mazur, A. et al., Bilberry anthocyanin-rich extract alters expression of genes related to atherosclerosis development in aorta of apo E-deficient mice. Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2010, DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2010.04.011.
70. Wang, D., Zou, T., Yang, Y., Yan, X. et al., Cyanidin-3-O-β-glucoside with the aid of its metabolite protocatechuic acid, reduces monocyte infiltration in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2011, 82, 713-719.
71. Milbury, P. E., Graf, B., Curran-Celentano, J. M., Blumberg, J. B. et al., Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) anthocyanins modulate heme oxygenase-1 and glutathione S-transferase-pi expression in ARPE-19 cells. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 2007, 48, 2343-2349.
72. Kolosova, N. G., Lebedev, P. A., Dikalova, A. E., Comparison of antioxidants in the ability to prevent cataract in prematurely aging OXYS rats. Bull. Exp. Biol. Med. 2004, 137, 249-251.
73. Matsumoto, H., Kamm, K. E., Stull, J. T., Azuma, H., Delphinidin-3-rutinoside relaxes the bovine ciliary smooth muscle trough activation of ETB receptor and NO/cGMP pathway. Exp. Eye Res. 2005, 80, 313-322.
74. Iida, H., Nakamura, Y., Matsumoto, H., Takeuchi, Y. et al., Effect of black-currant extract on negative lens-induced ocular growth in chicks. Ophthalmic Res. 2010, 44, 242-250.
75. Matsumoto, H., Nakamura, Y., Iida, H., Ito, K. et al., Comparative assessment of distribution of blackcurrant anthocyanins in rabbit and rat ocular tissues. Exp. Eye Res. 2006, 83, 348-356.
76. Nakamura, Y., Matsumoto, H., Todoki, K., Endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation induced by black currant concentrate in rat thoracic aorta. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 2002, 89, 29-35.
77. Iwasaki-Kurashige, K., Loyaga-Rendon, R. Y., Matsumoto, H., Tokunaga, T. et al., Possible mediators involved in decreasing peripheral vascular resistance wit blackcurrant concentrate (BC) in hind-limb perfusion model of the rat. Vascul. Pharmacol. 2006, 44, 215-223.
78. Matsumoto, H., Nakamura, Y., Tachibanaki, S., Kawamura, S. et al., Stimulatory effect of cyanidin 3-glycosides on the regeneration of rhodopsin. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 3560-3563.
79. Yanamala, N., Tirupula, K., Balem, F., Klein-Seetharaman, J., pH Dependent interaction of rhodopsin with cyanidin-3-glucoside. 1. Structural aspects. Photochem. Photobiol. 2009, 85, 454-462.
80. Tirupula, K., Balem, F., Yanamala, N., Klein-Seetharaman, J., pH dependent interaction of rhodopsin with cyanidin-3-glucoside. 2. Functional aspects. Photochem. Photobiol. 2009, 85, 463-470.
81. Kalt, W., Hanneken, A., Milbury, P., Tremblay, F., Recent research on polyphenolics in vision and eye health. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010 58, 4001-4007.
82. Ohguro, L., Ohguro, H., Nakazawa, M., Effects of anthocyanins in blackcurrant on retinal blood flow circulation of patients with normal tension glaucoma. A pilot study. Hirosaki Med. J. 2007, 59, 23-32.
83. Levy, Y., Glovinsky, Y., The effect of anthocyanosides on night vision. Eye (Lond.) 1998, 12, 967-969.
84. Zadok, D., Levy, Y., Glovinsky, Y., The effect of anthocyanosides in a multiple oral dose on night vision. Eye (Lond.) 1999, 13, 734-736.
85. Muth, E. R., Laurent, J. M., Jasper, P., The effect of bilberry nutritional supplementation on night visual acuity and contrast sensitivity. Altern. Med. Rev. 2000, 5, 164-173.
86. Canter, P. H., Ernst, E., Anthocyanosides of Vaccinium myrtillus (bilberry) for night vision-a systematic review of placebo-controlled trials. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2004, 49, 38-50.
87. Matsunaga, N., Imai, S., Inokuchi, Y., Shimazawa, M. et al., Bilberry and its main constituents have neuroprotective effects against retinal neuronal damage in vitro and in vivo. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2009, 53, 869-877.
88. Matsunaga, N., Tsuruma, K., Shimazawa, M., Yokota, S. et al., Inhibitory actions of bilberry anthocyanidins on angiogenesis. Phytother. Res. 2010, 24, S42-S47.
89. Matsunaga, N., Chikaraishi, Y., Shimazawa, M., Yokota, S., Vaccinium myrtillus (Bilberry) extracts reduce angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Evid. Based Complement Alternat. Med. 2010, 7, 47-56.
90. Tanaka, J., Nakanishi, T., Ogawa, K., Tsuruma, K. et al., Purple rice extract and anthocyanidins of the constituents protect against light-induced retinal damage in vitro and in vivo. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011, 59, 528-536.
91. Tanaka, J., Nakamura, S., Tsuruma, K., Shimazawa, M. et al., Purple Rice (Oryza sativa L.) extract and its constituents inhibit VEGF-induced angiogenesis. Phytother Res. 2011, doi: 10.1002/ptr.3533.
92. Iida, H., Nakamura, Y., Matsumoto, H., Comparison of the absorption property and efficancy between blackcurrant and bilberry anthocyanins. Jpn. J Med. Pharma. Sci. 2008, 59, 381-388.
93. Sakakibara, H., Ogawa, T., Koyanagi, A., Kobayashi, S. et al., Distribution and excretion of bilberry anthocyanins in mice. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2009, 57, 7681-7686.
94. Kalt, W., Blumberg, J. B., McDonald, J. E., Vinqvist-Tymchuk, M. R., Identification of anthocyanins in the liver, eye, and brain of blueberry-fed pigs. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2008, 56, 705-712.
95. Matsumoto, H., Inaba, H., Kishi, M., Tominaga, S. et al., Orally administered delphinidin 3-rutinoside and cyanidin 3-rutinoside are directly absorbed in rats and humans and appear in the blood as the intact forms. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2001 49, 1546-1551.
96. Krikorian, R., Shidler, M. D., Nash, T. A., Kalt, W. et al., Blueberry supplementation improves memory in older adults. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 3996-4000.
97. Shukitt-Hale, B., Carey, A., Simon, L., Mark, D. A. et al., Effects of Concord grape juice on cognitive and motor deficits in aging. Nutrition 2006, 22, 295-302.
98. Krikorian, R., Nash, T. A., Shidler, M. D., Shukitt-Hale, B. et al., Concord grape juice supplementation improves memory function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 103, 730-734.
99. Shukitt-Hale, B., Kalt, W., Carey, A. N., Vinqvist-Tymchuk, M. et al., Plum juice, but not dried plum powder, is effective in mitigating cognitive deficits in aged rats. Nutrition 2009, 25, 567-573.
100. Shukitt-Hale, B., Cheng, V., Joseph, J. A., Effects of blackberries on motor and cognitive function in aged rats. Nutr. Neurosci. 2009, 12, 135-140.
101. Goyarzu, P., Malin, D. H., Lau, F. C., Taglialatela, G. et al., Blueberry supplemented diet: effects on object recognition memory and nuclear factor-kappa B levels in aged rats. Nutr. Neurosci. 2004, 7, 75-83.
102. Shukitt-Hale, B., Lau, F. C., Carey, A. N., Galli, R. L. et al., Blueberry polyphenols attenuate kainic acid-induced decrements in cognition and alter inflammatory gene expression in rat hippocampus. Nutr. Neurosci. 2008, 11, 172-182.
103. Lau, F. C., Bielinski, D. F., Joseph, J. A., Inhibitory effects of blueberry extract on the production of inflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide-activated BV2 microglia. J. Neurosci. Res. 2007, 85, 1010-1017.
104. Williams, C. M., El Mohsen, M. A., Vauzour, D., Rendeiro, C., Blueberry-induced changes in spatial working memory correlate with changes in hippocampal CREB phosphorylation and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2008, 45, 295-305.
105. Spencer, J. P., The impact of fruit flavonoids on memory and cognition. Br. J. Nutr. 2010, 104, S40-S47.
106. Ruitenberg, A., den Heijer, T., Bakker, S. L., van Swieten, J. C. et al., Cerebral hypoperfusion and clinical onset of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Ann. Neurol. 2005, 57, 789-794.
107. Francis, S. T., Head, K., Morris, P. G., Macdonald, I. A. et al., The effect of flavanol-rich cocoa on the fMRI response to a cognitive task in healthy young people. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2006, 47, S215-S220.