Guns and sublethal violence: A comparative study of at-risk youth in two canadian cities

International Criminal Justice Review

Volumn 21, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 402-426

  Butters, Jennifer E ^a   Sheptycki, James ^b   Brochu, Serge ^c   Erickson, Patricia G ^a  

^a CENTRE FOR ADDICTION AND MENTAL HEALTH   (Canada)

^b YORK UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITÉ DE MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

at risk youth; drugs; gangs; guns; violence; weapons

Indexed keywords

EID: 84855170635     PISSN: 10575677     EISSN: 15563855     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1057567711428963     Document Type: Review

References (119)

1. Adlaf E.,Korf D.,Harrison L.,Erickson P.G.Cross national differences in drugs and violence among adolescents.Journal of Drug Issues. 2006;36:597-617.
2. Ash P.,Kellerman A. L.,Fuqua-Whitley D.,Johnson A.Gun acquisition and use by juvenile offenders.JAMA. 1996;275:1754-1758.
3. Bala N.Young offenders law. Concord, Ontario: Irwin Law; 1997:.
4. Bala N.,Carrington P. J.,Roberts J. V.Evaluating the youth criminal justice act after five years: A qualified success.Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice. 2009;51:131-168.
5. Benschop A.,Harrison L.,Korf D. J.,Erickson P. G.Different concepts of ethnicity in a cross-Atlantic study of violence and drug use among deviant youth.European Journal of Criminal Policy and Research. 2006;12:61-78.
6. Blumstein A.Youth violence, guns and the illicit drug industry.Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 1995;86:10-36.
7. Blumstein A.Youth, guns and violent crime.The Future of Children. 2002;12:39-53.
8. Bottomley, S. A. (2004). Locked and loaded: Gun control policy in Canada. In R. M Campbell, L. A. Pal & M. Howlett (Eds.), The real worlds of Canadian politics: Cases in process and policy (4th ed., pp.19-80). Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press.
9. Boyd N.Gun control: Placing costs in context.Canadian Journal of Criminology & Criminal Justice. 2003;45:473-478.
10. Bridges P. S.Gun control law (Bill C-17), suicide and homicide in Canada.Psychological Reports. 2004;94:819-826.
11. Brochu S.,Cousineau M. M.,Provost C.,Erickson P. G.,Fu S.Quand drogues et violence se rencontrent chez les jeunes: Un cocktail explosif? [When drugs and violence occur among young people: Does the cocktail explode?].Drogues, Sante, Societe. 2011;9:149-178.
12. Bucerius S.'What else should I do?' Cultural influences on the drug trade of migrants in Germany.Journal of Drug Issues. 2007;37:673-697.
13. Butters J.,Harrison L.,Adlaf E.,Erickson P. G.Weapons related violence among students in Philadelphia and Toronto: The gang connection.Journal of Gang Research. 2009;16:15-34.
14. Cabrera N. J.Violence in Canada: Sociolpolitical perspectives. Ross J. I, ed. Don Mills: Oxford University Press; 1995:126-153.
15. Callahan C. M,Rivara F. P.,Farrow J. A.Youth in detention and handguns.Journal of Adolescent Health. 1993;14:350-355.
16. One in 50 Ontario high school students reports carrying a gun.Centre for Addiction and Mental Health Populations Studies eBulletin. 2006;7 (Jan/Feb):.
17. Homicide in Canada. Juristat. Cat. # 85-002-XIE, 21(9). Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2001:.
18. Methods used to commit homicide. Homicide Survey. Policing Services Program. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2005:.
19. Youth and firearms in Canada.Paediatric Child Health. 2005;10:473-477.
20. Carrington P.Has violent youth crime increased?.Comment on Corrado and Markwart. Canadian Journal of Criminology. 1995;37:61-73.
21. Rates of homicide, suicide, and firearm-related death among children-26 industrialized countries.MMWR. 1997;46:101-105.
22. Youth risk behavioural surveillance-United States.Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 2007;57:SS-S4.
23. Cerdá M.,Messner S. F.,Tracy M.,Vlahov D.,Goldmann E.,Tardiff K. J.,Galea S.Investigating the effect of social changes on age-specific gun-related homicide rates in New York City during the 1990's.American Journal of Public Health. 2010;100:1107-1115.
24. Coalition for Gun Control. (2001). Kids and guns. Toronto, OW, Archives. http://www.guncontrol.ca.
25. Cook P. J.,Ludwig J.Does gun prevalence affect teen gun carrying after all?.Criminology. 2004;42:27-54.
26. Cook P. J.,Cukier W.,Krause K.The illicit firearms trade in North America.Criminology and Criminal Justice. 2009;9:1-22.
27. Corrado R.,Markwart A.The need to reform the YOA in response to violent young offenders: Confusion, reality or myth?.Canadian Journal of Criminology. 1995;36:343-378.
28. Cukier W.Firearms regulation: Canada in the international context Chronic diseases in Canada, April 1998. Ottawa, ON: Health Canada; 1998:.
29. Cukier W.,Sidel V.The global gun epidemic: From saturday night specials to AK-47 s. Westport, CT: Praeger International; 2005:.
30. Dauvergne M.,De Socio L.Firearms and violent crime.Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. 2008;28:1-14.
31. Dijkstra J. K.,Lindenberg S.,Veenstra R.,Steglich C.,Isaacs J.,Card N. S.,Hodges E. V. E.Influence and selection processes in weapon carrying during adolescence: The roles of status, aggression and vulnerability.Criminology. 2010;48:187-220.
32. Doob A.Research on community safety. Kidd B.Phillips J., ed. Toronto, ON: Centre of Criminology; 2004:81-95.
33. Doob A.,Sprott J.Is the 'quality' of youth violence becoming more serious?.Canadian Journal of Criminology. 1998;40:185-194.
34. Dunkel F.,Drenkhahn K.Youth violence: New patterns and local responses-Experiences in East and West. Greifswald, Germany: Forum Verlag Godesberg; 2003:.
35. Dziewanski D.Young guns: Guns, youth and the mediation of violence.Briarpatch. 2008;37:23-26.
36. Edwards A.,Sheptycki J.Third wave criminology: guns, crime and social order.Criminology and Criminal Justice. 2009;9:379-397.
37. Erickson P. G.Youth in transition: Perspectives on research and policy. Galaway B.Hudson J., ed. Toronto, ON: Thompson Publishing; 1996:319-327.
38. Erickson P. G.,Butters J. E.Research on community safety. Kidd B.Phillips J., ed. Toronto, ON: Centre of Criminology; 2004:42-58.
39. Erickson P. G.,Butters J. E.How does the Canadian juvenile justice system respond to detained youth with substance use associated problems?.Gaps, challenges and emerging issues. Substance Use & Misuse. 2005;40:953-973.
40. Erickson P. G.,Butters J. E.Final report: Youth, weapons and violence in Toronto and Montreal. Ottawa, ON: Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, Canada; 2006:.
41. Erickson P. G.,Butters J. E.,Cousineau M. M.,Harrison L.,Korf D.Girls and weapons: An international study of the perpetration of violence.Journal of Urban Health. 2006a;83:788-801.
42. Erickson P. G.,Butters J. E.,Korf D.,Harrison L.,Cousineau M. M.Weapons and violence among male delinquents: An international comparative study.International Annals of Criminology. 2006b;44:125-151.
43. Ezeonu I.Gun violence in Toronto: Perspectives from the police.The Howard Journal. 2010;49:147-165.
44. Fagan J.,Wilkinson D. L.Guns, youth violence, and social identity in inner cities.Crime and Justice. 1998;24:105-188.
45. Felson R. B.,Pare P. P.Gun cultures or honor cultures?.Explaining regional and race differences in weapon carrying. Social Forces. 2010;88:1357-1378.
46. Fitzgerald R.An examination of sex differences in delinquency. Crime and justice research paper series. Cat. # 85-561-MIE. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2003:.
47. Freed L. H.,Webster D.,Longwell J.,Carrese J.,Wilson M. H.Factors preventing gun acquisition and carrying among incarcerated adolescent males.Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine. 2001;155:335-341.
48. Gabor T.,Roberts J.,Stein K.,Di Giulio L.Unintentional firearm deaths: Can they be reduced by lowering gun ownership levels?.Canadian Journal of Public Health. 2001;92:396-398.
49. Gannon M.,Mihorean K.Criminal victimization in Canada, 2004. Cat. # 85-002-XPE, 25(7). Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada; 2005:.
50. Gartner R.Violence in Canada: Sociopolitical perspectives. Ross Jeffrey I., ed. Don Mills: Oxford University Press; 1995:186-222.
51. Gartner R.,Thompson S.Research on community safety. Kidd B.Phillips J., ed. Toronto, ON: Centre of Criminology; 2004:28-41.
52. Goldstein P.The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework.Journal of Drug Issues. 1985;21:345-367.
53. Gretton H. M.,Clift R. J.The mental health needs of incarcerated youth in British Columbia.Canada. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 2011;34:109-115.
54. Hagedorn J.Neighborhoods, markets and gang drug organization.Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 1994;31:264-294.
55. Harrison L.,Erickson P. G.,Adlaf E.,Freeman C.The drugs-violence nexus among American and Canadian youth.Substance Use & Misuse. 2001;36:2065-2086.
56. Harrison L.,Erickson P. G.,Korf D. J.,Brochu S.,Benschop A.How much for a dime bag: An exploration of youth drug markets.Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2007;90S:S27-S39.
57. Harrison L.,Martin S.,Enev T.,Harrington D.Comparing drug testing and self-report of drug use among youths and young adults in the general population. Rockville, MD: DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4249; 2007:.
58. Hemmati T.Ottawa. ON: Department of Justice Canada; 2006:.
59. Hogeveen B.'Winning deviant youth over by friendly helpfulness': Transformations in the legal governance of deviant children in Canada, 1857-1908.Youth justice. 2001;:43-64.
60. Hogeveen B.,Smardych R. C.Youth justice. Smandych R. C., ed. Toronto, ON: Harcourt; 2001:144-168.
61. Huff C. R.Gangs in America. 2002). (Ed.). Gangs in America (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE.Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
62. Ingolsby E. M.,Shaw D. S.Neighborhood contextual factors and early-starting antisocial pathways.Clinical, Child and Family Psychological Review. 2002;5:21-55.
63. Kleck G.Measures of gun ownership levels for macro-level crime and violence research.Journal of Research in Crime and Deliquency. 2004;41:3-36.
64. Klein M. W.,Maxson C. L.Violent crimes, violent criminals. Weiner N.Wolfgang M., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; 1989:.
65. Klein M. W.,Maxson C. L.Street gang patterns and policies. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 2006:.
66. Klein M. W.,Weerman F. M,Thornberry T. P.Street gang violence in Europe.European Journal of Criminology. 2006;3:413-437.
67. Koo D. J.,Chitwood D. D.,Sanchez J.Violent victimization and the routine activities/lifestyle of active drug users.Journal of Drug Issues. 2008;38:1105-1138.
68. Korf D.,Brochu S.,Benschop A.,Harrison L.,Erickson P.G.Teen drug sellers-A cross national study of segregated drug markets and related violence.Contemporary Drug Problems. 2008;35:153-176.
69. Kreager D.When it's good to be 'bad': Violence and adolescent peer acceptance.Criminology. 2007;45:893-923.
70. Leonard K.Firearm deaths in Canadian adolescents and young adults.Canadian Journal of Public Health. 1994;85:128-131.
71. Li G.Homicide in Canada, 2006.Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. 2007;27:1-19.
72. Lizotte A. J.,Krohn M. D.,Howell J. C.,Tobin K.,Howard G. J.Factors influencing gun carrying among young urban males over the adolescent life course.Criminology. 2000;38:811-834.
73. Lizotte A. J.,Sheppard D.Gun use by male juveniles: Research and prevention.Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Program. 2001;2001:1-12.
74. Loeber R.,Hay D.Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood.Annual Review of Psychology. 1997;48:371-410.
75. Lorinc J.Stray bullets.Toronto Life Magazine. 2008;42:46-55.
76. MacDonald R.,Shildrick T.Street corner society: Leisure careers, youth subculture and social exclusion.Leisure Studies. 2007;26:339-355.
77. McCluskey C. P.,McCluskey J. D.,Bynum T. S.Early onset offending and later violence and gun outcomes in a contemporary youth cohort.Journal of Criminal Justice. 2006;34:531-541.
78. Melde C.,Esbensen F. A.Gang membership as a turning point in the life-course.Criminology. 2011;49:513-552.
79. Molnar B. E.,Miller M. J.,Azrael D.,Buka S. L.Neighborhood predictors of concealed firearm carrying among children and adolescents.Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine. 2004;158:657-664.
80. Morselli C.Relational dynamics of illegal firearms transactions.Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. 2002;44:255-276.
81. Paetsch J. J.,Bertrand L. D.Victimization and delquency among Canadian youth.Adolescence. 1999;34:351-367.
82. Paglia A.,Adlaf E.Secular trends in self-reported violent activity among Ontario students, 1983-2001.Canadian Journal of Public Health. 2003;94:212-217.
83. Pan S. Y.,Desmeules M.,Morrison H.,Semenciw R.,Ugnat A. M.,Thompson W.,Mao Y.Adolescent injury deaths and hospitalizations in Canada: Magnitude and temporal trends, 1979-2003.Journal of Adolescent Health. 2007;41:84-92.
84. Peskin M. F.,Tortolero S. R.,Addy R. S.Weapon carrying prevention: Should adults spend more time with youth?.Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 2009;7:32-45.
85. Pickett W.,Craig W.,Harel Y.,Cunningham J.,Simpson K.,Molcho M.,Currie C. E.Cross national study of fighting and weapon carrying as determinants of adolescent injury.Pediatrics. 2005;116:855-863.
86. Pritchard C.,Evans B. T.An international comparison of 'youth' (15-24) and 'adult' (25-34) homicide, 1974-94: Highlighting the US anomaly.Critical Public Health. 2001;11:83-93.
87. Schissel B.Social dimensions of canadian youth justice. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press; 1993:.
88. Schissel B.Youth justice. Smandych R. C., ed. ON; Harcourt: Toronto; 2001:84-103.
89. Sheley J. F.,Wright J. D.In the line of fire: Youth, guns, and violence in Urban America. New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyer; 1995:.
90. Sheptycki J.Guns, crime and social order: A Canadian perspective.Criminology & Criminal Justice. 2009;9:307-336.
91. Sheptycki J.,Edwards A.Preface: Guns, crime and social order.Criminology & Criminal Justice. 2009;9:259-264.
92. Yearbook 2010: Gangs, groups and guns. Geneva, Switzerland: Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies; 2010:.
93. Smith M. D.Sources of firearm acquisition among a sample of inner-city youths.Journal of Criminal Justice. 1996;24:361-367.
94. Sorenson S. B.,Vittes K. A.Adolescents and firearms: A California statewide survey.American Journal of Public Health. 2004;94:852-858.
95. Sprott J. B.Understanding public views of youth crime and the youth justice system.Canadian Journal of Criminology. 1996;38:71-80.
96. Sprott J. B.,Doob A. N.Youth crime rates and the youth justice system.Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. 2008;50:621-640.
97. Tanner J.Teenage troubles: Youth and deviance in Canada. 2010). Teenage troubles: Youth and deviance in Canada (3rd ed.). Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press.Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press.
98. Tanner J.,Wortley S.The Toronto youth crime and victimization survey: Overview Report. Toronto: Centre of Criminology, University of Toronto; 2002:.
99. Taylor-Butts A.,Bressan A.Youth crime in Canada, 2006.Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics. 2008;28:1-16.
100. Thompson S.The social ecology of lethal violence in Toronto, 1988-2003. Criminology, University of Toronto: Canada; 2009:.
101. Thompson S.,Gartner R.Urban crime: The case of Toronto, Canada. Enhancing Urban safety and security: Global report on human settlements. UN Habitat: Earthscan; 2007:.
102. Topalli V.,Wright R.,Fornango R.Drug dealers, robbery, retaliation: vulnerability, deterrence and the contagion of violence.The British Journal of Criminolog. 2002;42:337-351.
103. Toronto Police Service. (2011). Shootings and homicides, year-to-date. TPS crime statistics. http://www.torontopolice.on.ca/statistics/ytd_stats.php.
104. Trussler T.Explaining the changing nature of homicide clearance in Canada.International Criminal Justice Review. 2010;20:366-383.
105. Ulzen T.,Hamilton H.The nature and characteristics of psychiatric comorbidity in incarcerated adolescents.Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 1998;41:57-63.
106. Webster D. W.,Freed L. H.,Frattaroli S.,Wilson M. H.How delinquent youth acquire guns: Initial versus most recent gun acquisitions.Journal of Urban Health. 2002;79:60-69.
107. Webster D. W.,Gainer P.,Champion H.Weapons carrying among inner-city junior high school students: Defensive behavior vs. aggressive delinquency.American Journal of Public Health. 1993;83:1604-1608.
108. Wells W.,Horney J.Weapon effects and individual intent to do harm: influence on the escalation of violence.Criminology. 2002;40:265-296.
109. White R.,Mason R.Youth gangs and youth violence: Charting the key dimensions.The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology. 2006;39:54-70.
110. Wikström P. O.,Loeber R.Do disadvantaged neighborhoods cause well-adjusted children to become adolescent delinquents? A study of male juvenile serious offending, individual risk and protective factors, and neighborhood context.Criminology. 2000;38:1109-1142.
111. Wilkinson D. L.Sociological studies of children and youth. Kinney D. A, ed. Stanford, CT: JAI Press; 2001:.
112. Wilkinson D. L.,Fagan J.What we know about gun use among adolescents.Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 2001;4:109-132.
113. Wintemute G. J.Where the guns come from: The gun industry and gun crime.The Future of Children. 2002;12:54-71.
114. Wortley S.Hidden intersections: Research on race, crime and criminal justice in Canada.Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal. 2004;35:99-117.
115. Wortley S.Identifying street gangs: Definitional dilemmas and their policy implications. Ottawa, ON: Justice Canada; 2010:.
116. Wortley S.,Tanner J.Research on community safety. Kidd B.Phillips J., ed. Toronto, ON: Centre of Criminology; 2004:59-80.
117. Wortley S.,Tanner J.Immigration, social disadvantage and urban youth gangs. Results of a Toronto-area study.Canadian Journal of Urban Research. 2006;15:1-20.
118. Wortley S.,Tanner J.Youth gangs, migration and ethnicity (pp. van Gemert F.Peterson D.Lien I., ed. London, England: Willan Publishing; 2008:181-210.
119. Yonas M. A.,O'Campo P.,Burke J.,Gielen A.Neighborhood-level factors and youth violence: Giving voice to the perceptions of prominent neighbourhood individuals.Health Education and Behavior. 2007;34:669-685.