Clinical and epidemiological issues in mammographic density

Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology

Volumn 9, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 33-40

  Assi, Valentina ^a   Warwick, Jane ^a   Cuzick, Jack ^a   Duffy, Stephen W ^a  

^a QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ESTROGEN RECEPTOR; EXEMESTANE; LETROZOLE; PLACEBO; RALOXIFENE; TAMOXIFEN;

ACCURACY; AGE DISTRIBUTION; BODY MASS; BREAST CANCER; BREAST DISEASE; CANCER EPIDEMIOLOGY; CANCER HORMONE THERAPY; CANCER RISK; CANCER SCREENING; CLASSIFICATION ALGORITHM; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DRUG MECHANISM; ECHOMAMMOGRAPHY; FAMILY HISTORY; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; MAMMOGRAPHIC DENSITY; MENOPAUSE; MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; ONCOLOGICAL PARAMETERS; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROCESS DEVELOPMENT; PROCESS OPTIMIZATION; REPRODUCIBILITY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; THERAPY EFFECT; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE; VALIDATION PROCESS;

AGE FACTORS; BODY MASS INDEX; BREAST NEOPLASMS; EARLY DETECTION OF CANCER; FEMALE; HUMANS; MAMMOGRAPHY; MENOPAUSE; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84655176502     PISSN: 17594774     EISSN: 17594782     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrclinonc.2011.173     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Wolfe, J. N. Breast patterns as an index of risk for developing breast cancer. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 126, 1130-1137 (1976).
2. McCormack, V. A. & dos Santos Silva, I. Breast density and parenchymal patterns as markers of breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 1159-1169 (2006).
3. Are You Dense. Are you dense? Exposing the best-kept secret™ online, http://www.areyoudense.org/(2012).
4. Gram, I. T., Funkhouser, E. & Tabar, L. The Tabar classification of mammographic parenchymal patterns. Eur. J. Radiol. 24, 131-136 (1997). (Pubitemid 27165353)
5. D'Orsi, C. J. et al. Breast imaging reporting and data system: ACR BI-RADS. Breast Imaging Atlas, Reston, VA American College of Radiology (2003).
6. Boyd, N. F. et al. Body size, mammographic density, and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 2086-2092 (2006). (Pubitemid 44877030)
7. Boyd, N. F. et al. Mammographic density and the risk and detection of breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 227-236 (2007). (Pubitemid 46143226)
8. Cuzick, J. et al. Tamoxifen-induced reduction in mammographic density and breast cancer risk reduction: a nested case-control study. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 103, 744-752 (2011).
9. Duffy, S. W. et al. Visually assessed breast density, breast cancer risk and the importance of the craniocaudal view. Breast Cancer Res. 10, R64 (2008).
10. Wolfe, J. N., Saftlas, A. F. & Salane, M. Mammographic parenchymal patterns and quantitative evaluation of mammographic densities: a case-control study. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 148, 1087-1092 (1987). (Pubitemid 17083062)
11. Byng, J. W. et al. Analysis of mammographic density and breast cancer risk from digitized mammograms. Radiographics 18, 1587-1598 (1998). (Pubitemid 128467077)
12. Heine, J. J. et al. An automated approach for estimation of breast density. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 17, 3090-3097 (2008).
13. Yaffe, M. J. Mammographic density. Measurement of mammographic density. Breast Cancer Res. 10, 209 (2008).
14. th international workshop on digital mammography (eds Astley, S., Brady M. & Zwiggelaar, R.) 1-10 (Manchester, 2006).
15. Aitken, Z. et al. Screen-film mammographic density and breast cancer risk: a comparison of the volumetric standard mammogram form and the interactive threshold measurement methods. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 19, 418-428 (2010).
16. Jeffreys, M., Warren, R., Highnam, R. & Davey Smith, G. Breast cancer risk factors and a novel measure of volumetric breast density: cross-sectional study. Br. J. Cancer 98, 210-216 (2008).
17. Hartman, K., Highnam, R., Warren, R. & Jackson, V. in Digital Mammography, lecture notes in computer science (Ed Krupinski, E. A.) 5116, 33-39 (2008).
18. Malkov, S., Wang, J., Kerlikowske, K., Cummings, S. R. & Shepherd, J. A. Single X-ray absorptiometry method for the quantitative mammographic measure of fibroglandular tissue volume. Medical Phys. 36, 5525-5536 (2009).
19. Pawluczyk, O. et al. A volumetric method for estimation of breast density on digitized screen-film mammograms. Med Phys. 30, 352-364 (2003). (Pubitemid 36337102)
20. Kaufhold J., Thomas, J. A., Eberhard, J. W., Galbo, C. E. & Trotter. D. E. A calibration approach to glandular tissue composition estimation in digital mammography. Med Phys. 29, 1867-1880 (2002). (Pubitemid 35364223)
21. Gao, J., Warren, R., Warren-Forward, H. & Forbes, J. F. Reproducibility of visual assessment on mammographic density. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 108, 121-127 (2008). (Pubitemid 351623241)
22. Byrne, C. et al. Mammographic features and breast cancer risk: effects with time, age, and menopause status. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 87, 1622-1629 (1995).
23. Warner, E., Lockwood, G., Tritchler, D. & Boyd, N. F. The risk of breast cancer associated with mammographic parenchymal patterns: a meta-analysis of the published literature to examine the effect of method of classification. Cancer Detect. Prev. 16, 67-72 (1992).
24. Ursin, G., Hovanessian-Larsen, L., Parisky, Y. R., Pike, M. C. & Wu, A. H. Greatly increased occurrence of breast cancers in areas of mammographically dense tissue. Breast Cancer Res. 7, 605-608 (2005).
25. Boyd, N. et al. Mammographic density and breast cancer risk: evaluation of a novel method of measuring breast tissue volumes. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 1754-1762 (2009).
26. Cuzick, J. Assessing risk for breast cancer. Breast Cancer Res. 10 (Suppl 4), 13 (2008).
27. Boyd, N. et al. A longitudinal study of the effects of menopause on mammographic features. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11, 1048-1053 (2002). (Pubitemid 35192656)
28. Vachon, C. M. et al. Mammographic density, breast cancer risk and risk prediction. Breast Cancer Res. 9, 217 (2007).
29. Mandelson, M. T. et al. Breast density as a predictor of mammographic detection: comparison of interval-detected and screen-detected cancers. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 92, 1081-1087 (2000). (Pubitemid 30616482)
30. van Gils, C. H., Otten, J. D., Verbeek, A. L. & Hendriks, J. H. Mammographic breast density and risk of breast cancer: masking bias or causality? Eur. J. Epidemiol. 14, 315-320 (1998). (Pubitemid 28288451)
31. Ma, L. et al. Case-control study of factors associated with failure to detect breast cancer by mammography. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 84, 781-785 (1992).
32. Boyd, N. F. et al. Quantitative classification of mammographic densities and breast cancer risk: results from the Canadian National Breast Screening Study. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 87, 670-675 (1995).
33. Boyd N. F.et al. Effects at two years of a low-fat high-carbohydrate diet on radiological features of the breast: results from randomized trial. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 89, 488-496 (1997).
34. Duffy, S. W. in Epidemiology of Female Breast Cancer (ed.Michell, M. J.). 1-12 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010).
35. Cuzick, J., Warwick, J., Pinney, E., Warren, R. M. & Duffy, S. W. Tamoxifen and breast density in women at increased risk of breast cancer. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 96, 621-628 (2004). (Pubitemid 38584986)
36. Vachon, C. M., Kuni, C. C., Anderson, K., Anderson, V. E. & Sellers, T. A. Association of mammographically defined percent breast density with epidemiologic risk factors for breast cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 11, 653-662 (2000). (Pubitemid 30636365)
37. Wong, C. S. et al. Mammographic density and its interaction with other breast cancer risk factors in an Asian population. Br. J. Cancer 104, 871-874 (2011).
38. Stone, J., Ding, J., Warren, R. M., Duffy, S. W. & Hopper, J. L. Using mammographic density to predict breast cancer risk: dense area or percentage dense area. Breast Cancer Res. 12, R97 (2010).
39. Woolcott, C. G. et al. Associations of overall and abdominal adiposity with area and volumetric mammographic measures among postmenopausal women. Int. J. Cancer 129, 440-448 (2011).
40. Vachon, C. M. et al. Mammographic breast density as a general marker of breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 16, 43-49 (2007). (Pubitemid 46174262)
41. Hutson, S. W., Cowen, P. N. & Bird, C. C. Morphometric studies of age related changes in normal human breast and their significance for evolution of mammary cancer. J. Clin. Pathol. 38, 281-287 (1985). (Pubitemid 15134081)
42. Johnson, K. H. & Millard, P. S. Oral contraceptives and breast cancer. J. Fam. Pract. 43, 340-341 (1996).
43. Sala, E. et al. High-risk mammographic parenchymal patterns, hormone replacement therapy and other risk factors: a case-control study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 29, 629-636 (2000). (Pubitemid 30612228)
44. Vacek, P. M. & Geller, B. M. A prospective study of breast cancer risk using routine mammographic breast density measurements. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 13, 715-722 (2004). (Pubitemid 38737858)
45. Boyd, N. F. et al. Mammographic density as a surrogate marker for the effects of hormone therapy on risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 15, 961-966 (2006). (Pubitemid 43823524)
46. Greendale, G. A. et al. Postmenopausal hormone therapy and change in mammographic density. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 95, 30-37 (2003). (Pubitemid 36124293)
47. Vachon, C. M., Sellers, T. A., Vierkant, R. A., Wu, F. F. & Brandt, K. R. Case-control study of increased mammographic breast density response to hormone replacement therapy. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 11, 1382-1388 (2002). (Pubitemid 35340373)
48. Rutter, C. M., Mandelson, M. T., Laya, M. B., Seger, D. J. & Taplin, S. Changes in breast density associated with initiation, discontinuation, and continuing use of hormone replacement therapy. JAMA 285, 171-176 (2001). (Pubitemid 32048518)
49. Boyd, N. F. et al. The association of breast mitogens with mammographic densities. Br. J. Cancer 87, 876-882 (2002). (Pubitemid 35252963)
50. Narod, S. Hormone replacement therapy and the risk of breast cancer. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 8, 669-676 (2011).
51. Eng-Wong J. et al. Effect of raloxifene on mammographic density and breast magnetic resonance imaging in premenopausal women at increased risk for breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 17, 1696-1701 (2008).
52. Eilertsen, A. L., Karssemeijer, N., Skaane, P., Qvigstad, E, Sandset P. M. Differential impact of conventional and low-dose oral hormone therapy, tibolone and raloxifene on mammographic breast density, assessed by an automated quantitative method. BJOG 115, 773-779 (2008). (Pubitemid 351514578)
53. Freedman, M. et al. Digitized mammography: a clinical trial of postmenopausal women randomly assigned to receive raloxifene, estrogen, or placebo. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 93, 51-56 (2001). (Pubitemid 32060890)
54. Vachon, C. M. et al. Pilot study of the impact of letrozole vs. placebo on breast density in women completing 5 years of tamoxifen. The Breast 16, 204-210 (2007). (Pubitemid 46499237)
55. Cigler, T. et al. A randomized, placebo controlled trial (NCIC CTG MAP1) examining the effects of letrozole on mammographic breast density and other end organs on postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 120, 427-435 (2010).
56. Cigler, T. et al. A randomized, placebo controlled trial (NCIC CTG MAP2) examining the effects of exemestane on mammographic breast density, bone density, markers of bone metabolism and serum lipid levels in postmenopausal women. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 120, 427-435 (2010).
57. McCormack, V. A. et al. Sex steroids, growth factors and mammographic density: a cross-sectional study of UK postmenopausal Caucasian and Afro-Caribbean women. Breast Cancer Res. 11, R38 (2009).
58. Tamimi, R. M., Hankinson, S. E., Colditz, G. A. & Byrne, C. Endogenous sex hormone levels and mammographic density among postmenopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 14, 2641-2647 (2005). (Pubitemid 41752727)
59. Tamimi, R. M., Byrne, C., Colditz, G. A. & Hankinson, S. E. Endogenous hormone levels, mammographic density, and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 99, 1178-1187 (2007). (Pubitemid 47233068)
60. Ziv, E. et al. Mammographic density and estrogen receptor status of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 13, 2090-2095 (2004). (Pubitemid 40054303)
61. Ma, H. et al. Is there a difference in the association between percent mammographic density and subtypes of breast cancer? Luminal A and triple-negative breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 479-485 (2009).
62. Yaghjyan L. et al. Mammographic breast density and subsequent risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women according to tumor characteristics. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 103, 1-11 (2011).
63. Ding, J., Warren, R., Girling, A. Thompson, D. & Easton, D. Mammographic density, estrogen receptor status and other breast cancer tumor characteristics. Breast J. 16, 279-289 (2010).
64. Conroy, S. M., Pagano, I., Kolonel, L. N. & Maskarinec, G. Mammographic density and hormone receptor expression in breast cancer: the multietnic cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol. 35, 448-452 (2011).
65. Pasqualini, J. R. et al. Concentrations of estrone, estradiol, and estrone sulfate and evaluation of sulfatase and aromatase activities in pre-and postmenopausal breast cancer patients. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 81, 1460-1464 (1996). (Pubitemid 26118577)
66. Boyd, N. F. et al. Heritability of mammographic density, a risk factor for breast cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 347, 886-894 (2002).
67. Pankow, J. S. et al. Genetic analysis of mammographic breast density in adult women: evidence of a gene effect. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 89, 549-556 (1997). (Pubitemid 27172944)
68. Ursin, G. et al. The relative importance of genetics and environment on mammographic density. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 18, 102-112 (2009).
69. Kelemen, L. E., Sellers, T. A. & Vachon, C. M. Can genes for mammographic density inform cancer aetiology? Nat. Rev. Cancer 8, 812-823 (2008).
70. Easton, D. F. et al. Genome-wide association study identifies novel breast cancer susceptibility loci. Nature 447, 1087-1093 (2007). (Pubitemid 47014426)
71. Odefrey, F. et al. Common genetic variants associated with breast cancer and mammographic density measures that predict disease. Cancer Res. 70, 1449-1458 (2010).
72. Lindstrom, S. et al. Common variants in ZNF365 are associated with both mammographic density and breast cancer risk. Nat. Genet. 43, 185-187 (2011).
73. Byrne, C. et al. Effects of mammographic density and benign breast disease on breast cancer risk (United States). Cancer Causes Control 12, 103-110 (2001). (Pubitemid 32165267)
74. Hartmann, L. C. et al. Benign breast disease and the risk of breast cancer, N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 229-237 (2005). (Pubitemid 41058322)
75. Carter, C. L., Corle, D. K., Micozzi, M. S., Schatzkin, A. & Taylor, P. R. A prospective study of the development of breast cancer in 16,692 women with benign breast disease. Am. J. Epidemiol. 128, 467-477 (1988).
76. Degnim, A. C. et al. Stratification of breast cancer risk in women with atypia: a Mayo cohort study. J. Clin. Oncol. 25, 2671-2677 (2007). (Pubitemid 47123172)
77. Boyd, N. F. et al. Mammographic densities and the prevalence and incidence of histological types of benign breast disease. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 9, 15-24 (2000). (Pubitemid 30428438)
78. Boyd, N. F., Lockwood, G. A., Byng, J. W., Tritchler, D. L. & Yaffe, M. J. Mammographic densities and breast cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 7, 1133-1144 (1998). (Pubitemid 29001671)
79. Cuzick, J., Berridge, D. & Whitehead, J. Mammographic dysplasia as entry criterion for breast cancer prevention trials. Lancet 337, 1225 (1991).
80. Tyrer, J., Duffy, S. W. & Cuzick, J. A breast cancer prediction model incorporating familial and personal risk factors. Stat. Med. 23, 1111-1130 (2004). (Pubitemid 38477070)
81. Chen, J. et al. Projecting absolute invasive breast cancer risk in white women with a model that includes mammographic density. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 98, 1215-1226 (2006). (Pubitemid 44390992)
82. Sala, E. et al. Mammographic parenchymal patterns and mode of detection: implications for the breast screening programme. J. Med. Screen 5, 207-212 (1998). (Pubitemid 29035312)
83. Chiu, S. Y. et al. Effect of baseline breast density on breast cancer incidence, stage, mortality, and screening parameters: 25-year follow-up of a Swedish mammographic screening. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 19, 1219-1228 (2010).
84. Corsetti, V. et al. Evidence of the effect of adjunct ultrasound screening in women with mammography-negative dense breasts: interval breast cancers at 1 year follow-up. Eur. J. Cancer 47, 1021-1026 (2011).
85. Kelly, K. M., Dean, J. Comulada, W S. & Lee, S. J. Breast cancer detection using automated whole breast ultrasound and mammography in radiologically dense breasts. Eur. Radiol. 20, 734-742 (2010).
86. Warner, E. et al. Prospective study of breast cancer incidence in women with a BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation under surveillance with and without magnetic resonance imaging. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 1664-1669 (2011).
87. Rijnsburger, A. J. et al. BRCA1-associated breast cancers present differently from BRCA2-associated and familial cases: long-term follow-up of the Dutch MRISC Screening Study. J. Clin. Oncol. 28, 5265-5273 (2010).
88. Leach, M. O. et al. Screening with magnetic resonance imaging and mammography of a UK population at high familial risk of breast cancer: a prospective multicentre cohort study (MARIBS). Lancet 365, 1769-1778 (2005). (Pubitemid 40744657)
89. Bigenwald, R. Z. et al. Is mammography adequate for screening women with inherited BRCA mutations and low breast density? Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 17, 706-711 (2008). (Pubitemid 351471706)
90. Helvie, M. A., Roubidoux, M. A., Weber, B. L. & Merajver, S. D. Mammography of breast carcinoma in women who have mutations of the breast cancer gene BRCA1: initial experience. Am. J. Roentgenol. 168, 1599-1602 (1997). (Pubitemid 27232691)
91. Chang, J., Yang, W. T. & Choo, H. F. Mammography in Asian patients with BRCA1 mutations. Lancet 353, 2070-2071 (1999). (Pubitemid 29271768)
92. Huo, Z. et al. Computerized analysis of digitized mammograms of BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene mutation carriers. Radiology, 225, 519-526 (2002). (Pubitemid 35239257)
93. Tilanus-Linthorst, M. et al. A BRCA 1/2 mutation, high breast density and prominent pushing margins of a tumor independently contribute to a frequent false-negative mammography. Int. J. Cancer 102, 91-95 (2002).
94. Mitchell, G. et al. Mammographic density and breast cancer risk in BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. Cancer Res. 66, 1866-1872 (2006). (Pubitemid 43259974)
95. Wenkel, E. et al. Automated breast ultrasound: lesion detection and BI-RADS classification-a pilot study. Rofo 180, 804-808 (2008).
96. Pisano, E. D. et al. Diagnostic performance of digital versus film mammography for breast-cancer screening. N. Engl. J. Med. 353, 1773-1783 (2005). (Pubitemid 41549889)
97. Gail, M. H. et al. Projecting individualized probabilities of developing breast cancer for white females who are being examined annually. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 81, 1879-1886 (1989). (Pubitemid 20026073)
98. Costantino, J. P. et al. Validation studies for models projecting the risk of invasive and total breast cancer incidence. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 91, 1541-1548 (1999). (Pubitemid 29457958)
99. Claus, E. B., Risch, N. & Thompson, W. D. Autosommal dominant inheritance of early onset breast cancer. Cancer 73, 643-651 (1994).
100. Claus, E. B., Risch, N., & Thompson, W. D. The calculation of breast cancer risk for women with a first degree family history of ovarian cancer. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 28, 115-120 (1993). (Pubitemid 24056083)
101. van Asperen C. J. et al. Risk estimation for healthy women from breast cancer families: new insights and new strategies. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 13, 87-93 (2004). (Pubitemid 38116625)
102. Ford, D., Easton, D. F., Bishop, D. T., Narod, S. A. & Goldgar, D. E. Risk of cancer in BRCA-1 mutation carriers. Breast Cancer Linkage Consortium. Lancet 343, 692-695 (1994).
103. Amir, E. et al. Evaluation of breast cancer risk assessment packages in the family history evaluation and screening programme. J. Med. Genet. 40, 807-814 (2003). (Pubitemid 37485490)
104. Schonfeld, S. et al. Effect of changing breast cancer incidence rates on the calibration of the gail model. J. Clin. Oncol. 28, 2411-2417 (2010).
105. Boughey, J. C. et al. Evaluation of the Tyrer-Cuzick (International Breast Cancer Intervention Study) model for breast cancer risk prediction in women with atypical hyperplasia. J. Clin. Oncol. 28, 3591-3596 (2010).
106. Pankratz V. S. et al. Assessment of the accuracy of the Gail model in women with atypical hyperplasia. J Clin. Oncol. 26, 5374-5379 (2008).
107. Tice, J. A., Cummings, S. R., Ziv, E. & Kerlikowske, K. Mammographic breast density and the Gail model for breast cancer risk prediction in a screening population. Breast Cancer Res. Treat. 94, 115-122 (2005). (Pubitemid 41547108)
108. Barlow, W. E. et al. Prospective breast cancer risk prediction model for women undergoing screening mammography. J. Natl Cancer Inst. 98, 1204-1214 (2006). (Pubitemid 44390991)
109. Tice, J. A. et al. Using clinical factors and mammographic density to estimate breast cancer risk: development and validation of a new predictive model. Ann. Intern Med. 148, 337-347 (2008). (Pubitemid 351665464)
110. Visvanathan, K. et al. American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline update on the use of pharmacologic interventions including tamoxifen, raloxifene, and aromatase inhibition for breast cancer risk reduction. J. Clin. Oncol. 27, 3235-3258 (2009).
111. Familial breast cancer: the classification and care of women at risk of familial breast cancer in primary, secondary and tertiary care (partial update of CG14). National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) online, http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG41 (2006).
112. PROCAS study. University Hospital of South Manchester online, http://www.uhsm.nhs.uk/research/Pages/PROCASstudy.aspx.
113. NHS Breast Screening Programme Annual Review 2010, NHS Breast Screening Programme online, http://www.cancerscreening.nhs.uk/breastscreen/publications (2011).
114. Large national study of breast cancer (available only in Swedish: Stora nationella bröstcancerstudien). Karma online, http://www.karmastudien.se/ (2011).