Equity in sustainable communities: Exploring tools from environmental justice and political ecology

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 50, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 315-339

  Chitewere, Tendai ^a  

^a SAN FRANCISCO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS; EQUITY; HOUSEHOLD STRUCTURE; PRISTINE ENVIRONMENT; SOCIOECONOMIC CONDITIONS; SUSTAINABILITY; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; URBAN DEVELOPMENT;

NEW YORK [NEW YORK (STT)]; NEW YORK [UNITED STATES]; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84555165687     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Global Ecovillage Network, http://gen.ecovillage.org/ (last visited Apr. 4, 2010).
2. ROBERT PUTNAM, BOWLING ALONE: THE COLLAPSE AND REVIVAL OF AMERICAN COMMUNITY (2000) (discussing this breakdown); ANDREW ROSS, THE CELEBRATION CHRONICLES: LIFE, LIBERTY, AND THE PURSUIT OF PROPERTY VALUE IN DISNEY'S NEW TOWN (1999) (describing the creation of Celebration, Florida, a community designed by the Walt Disney Corporation that responds to social degradation).
3. Residents inside ecovillages have raised concerns about the lack of ethnic and class diversity. Often, discussions on diversity in cohousing focus on religious, gender, and sexual orientation as representing various forms of diversity, conspicuously excluding race and ethnicity.
4. Jennifer Hattam, Can 'Eco-Villages' Be Sustainable Without Being Exclusive?, TREEHUGGER, Feb. 2, 2010, http://www.alternet.org/story/145419
5. Ellen Orleans, Do We Really Value "Diversity"?, 124 COMMUNITIES MAG.17, 17-20 (2004).
6. ROBERT BULLARD, DUMPING IN DIXIE: RACE, CLASS, AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY (1990).
7. For a discussion on the social consequences of Hurricane Katrina, see MICHAEL ERIC DYSON, COME HELL OR HIGH WATER: HURRICANE KATRINA AND THE COLOR OF DISASTER (2006).
8. ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE AND ENVIRONMENTALISM: THE SOCIAL JUSTICE CHALLENGE TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT (Ronald Sandler & Phaedra C. Pezzullo eds., 2007) [hereinafter Sandler & Pezzullo].
9. Melissa Checker, Eco-Apartheid and Global Greenwaves: African Diasporic Environmental Justice Movements, 10 SOULS: CRITICAL J. BLACK POL., CULTURE, & SOC'Y 390-408 (2008).
10. A variety of studies within the environmental justice field document how people of color are disproportionately exposed to hazardous living conditions, including exposure to toxic chemicals in employment such as farm workers.
11. ANGUS WRIGHT, Rethinking the Circle of Poison: The Politics of Pesticide Poisoning Among Mexican Farm Workers, 13 LATIN AM. PERSP. 26-59 (1986).
12. Most political ecologists from geography, political science, and anthropology trace the beginnings of political ecology to PAUL BLAIKIE & HAROLD BROOKFIELD, LAND DEGRADATION AND SOCIETY (1987). The field of political ecology is diverse; anthropologists look to Eric Wolf, Ownership and Political Ecology, 45 ANTHROPOLOGICAL Q. 201, 201-05 (1972), as a significant introduction to political ecology.
13. There are a variety of ecovillages around the world. While this paper focuses on an ecovillage in the United States, not all communities fall under this analysis. For example, Ecovillage Farm in Richmond, California, is one community project focused on providing healthful food and urban gardening experiences to low-income households.
14. For a thorough analysis of the social and environmental consequences of sprawl,
15. THERESA CALDEIRA, CITY OF WALLS: CRIME, SEGREGATION, AND CITIZENSHIP IN SA ̃ O PAULO (2000)
16. ROBERT BULLARD, et al., SPRAWL CITY: RACE, POLITICS, AND PLANNING IN ATLANTA (2000).
17. People's Grocery is a community-based organization in West Oakland, California. Its mission aims to 'build a local food system that improves the health and economy of the West Oakland community.' People's Grocery, http://www.peoplesgrocery.org (last visited Mar. 16, 2010).
18. WORLD COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT, UNITED NATIONS, OUR COMMON FUTURE 41 (1987) [hereinafter BRUNDTLAND REPORT].
19. RAMACHANDRA GUHA, HOW MUCH SHOULD A PERSON CONSUME?: ENVIRONMENTALISM IN INDIA AND THE UNITED STATES (2006).
20. The basic definition of an ecovillage comes from the Global Ecovillage Network, stating: 'Ecovillages are urban or rural communities of people, who strive to integrate a supportive social environment with a low-impact way of life. To achieve this, they integrate various aspects of ecological design, permaculture, ecological building, green production, alternative energy, community building practices, and much more.' Global Ecovillage Network, http://gen.ecovillage.org/ (last visited Mar. 19, 2010).
21. BUNYAN BRYANT, ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: ISSUES, POLICIES, AND SOLUTIONS (1995).
22. JULIAN AGYEMAN, et al., JUST SUSTAINABILITIES: DEVELOPMENT IN AN UNEQUAL WORLD 5 (2003).
23. LIZ WALKER, ECOVILLAGE AT ITHACA: PIONEERING A SUSTAINABLE CULTURE (2005).
24. TENDAI CHITEWERE, CONSTRUCTING A GREEN LIFESTYLE: CONSUMPTION AND ENVIRONMENTALISM IN AN ECOVILLAGE (2006) [hereinafter CHITEWERE, GREEN LIFESTYLE]; TENDAI CHITEWERE & DORCETA E. TAYLOR, Sustainable Living and Community Building in EcoVillage at Ithaca: The Challenges of Incorporating Social Justice Concerns into the Practices of an Ecological Cohousing Community, in 18 ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL JUSTICE: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE, RESEARCH IN SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND PUBLIC POLICY 141-76 (Dorceta E. Taylor ed., 2010) (providing examples of personal choices that residents make, such as, designing their homes to be close together or choosing consumer products that are LEEDcertified or locally produced).
25. A definition of environmental racism, a key concept in the environmental justice movement, is presented in the next section.
26. Sandler & Pezzullo, supra note 6, includes a variety of essays that document the challenges to negotiate the environmental movement that ecovillages occupy, and the environmental justice movement. One of the few exceptions is 'Green for All,' an effort to include people of color in the growing green movement by providing technical training in solar insulation, and in preparing people of color to compete for green jobs.
27. VAN JONES, THE GREEN COLLAR ECONOMY: HOW ONE SOLUTION CAN FIX OUR TWO BIGGEST PROBLEMS (2008).
28. WALKER, supra note 17; Diana Fischetti, Building Resistance From Home: EcoVil- lage at Ithaca as a Model of Sustainable Living, (2008) (unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Oregon); Andy Kirby, Redefining Social and Environmental Relations at Ecovillage at Ithaca, 23 J. ENVTL. PSYCHOL. 323, 323-32 (2003).
29. Explicit in the cohousing model is that residents would not subsidize each other. Like a homeowners association, individual households maintain financial autonomy except for monthly community dues that vary for each community. For a thorough description of cohousing and a history of the movement from Denmark, visit the official website at: Cohousing, http://www.cohousing.org/what_is_cohousing (last visited Nov. 29, 2009).
30. KATHERINE MCCAMANT & CHARLES DURRETT, COHOUSING: A CONTEMPORARY APPROACH TO HOUSING OURSELVES (1994). CHITEWERE, GREEN LIFESTYLE supra note 18.
31. The number of ecovillages is constantly changing as new communities form. For an updated list of ecovillages, see Global Ecovillage Network, http://gen.ecovillage.org/ (last visited Nov. 29, 2009).
32. Criticism of 1970s U.S. environmentalism focused on the minimal concern shown for environmental degradation in urban spaces. Specifically, environmental justice activists emphasize the unequal distributions of environmental degradation and hazards based on race and class, and point to the exclusion of people of color from the mainstream environmental discourse of the 1970s.
33. WILLIAM CRONON, UNCOMMON GROUND: RETHINKING THE HUMAN PLACE IN NATURE (1996)
34. William Cronon, The Trouble with Wilderness, or Getting Back to the Wrong Nature, 1 ENVTL. HIST. 7, 7 (1996)
35. DONNA HARAWAY, PRIMATE VISIONS: GENDER, RACE, AND NATURE IN THE WORLD OF MODERN SCIENCE (1989).
36. Giovanna Di Chiro, Nature as Community: The Convergence of Environment and Social Justice, in UNCOMMON GROUND: RETHINKING THE HUMAN PLACE IN NATURE 298-306 (William Cronon ed., 1996).
37. CONFRONTING ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM: VOICES FROM THE GRASSROOTS 7 (Robert D. Bullard ed., 1993).
38. Id. at 3 (quoting Reverend Benjamin F. Chavis, Jr.).
39. BULLARD, supra note 4. 29.
40. Contributors to environmental justice include the African American civil rights movement, anti-toxics movement, farm workers, academics, Native American rights, labor movement, and traditional environmental movement.
41. LUKE W. COLE & SHEILA R. FOSTER, FROM THE GROUND UP: ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM AND THE RISE OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE MOVEMENT (2001)
42. BULLARD, supra note 4.
43. For the post-World War II civil rights movement,
44. ROBERT O. SELF, AMERICAN BABYLON: RACE AND THE STRUGGLE FOR POSTWAR OAKLAND (2003).
45. Historically, other struggles for equality and justice were fought by different labor unions, like the United Farm Workers. Although the struggles were formed primarily around labor issues, they still contained concerns around environmental hazards. The Environmental Defense Fund traces both the civil rights movement and the environmental justice movement in one timeline, see Environmental Defense Fund, http://www.edf.org/article.cfm?ContentID=2816 (last visited Nov. 29, 2009) (providing full descriptions of both movements).
46. BRYANT C, supra note 15, at 6.
47. Susan Cutter, Race, Class and Environmental Justice, 19 PROGRESS HUM. GEOGRAPHY 111, 111-122 (1995).
48. By the end of the protest, over 500 black, Native American, and white activists were arrested, including 94 children.
49. Dollie Burwell & Luke Cole, Environmental Justice Comes Full Circle: Warren County Before and After, 1 GOLDEN GATE U. ENVTL. L. J. 9, 24 (2007).
50. To avoid the cost of properly disposing of PCB waste, several tons were illegally dumped along North Carolina's roadway. Subsequently, the state looked to establish a new landfill to hold the waste.
51. Warren County was preceded by other important justice demands related to the environment.
52. Bean v. Sw. Waste Mgmt. Corp., 482 F. Supp. 673 (S.D. Tex. 1979);
53. BULLARD, supra note 4;
54. COLE, FOSTER, supra note 29;
55. DAVID. PELLOW, GARBAGE WARS: THE STRUGGLE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN CHICAGO (2004);
56. Burwell, Cole, supra note 32, at 9-40.
57. COLE, FOSTER, supra note 29;
58. Burwell, Cole, supra note 32, at 9-40. 36.
59. Burwell, Cole, supra note 32, at 9-40.
60. U.S. GEN. ACCOUNTING OFFICE, SITING OF HAZARDOUS WASTE LANDFILLS AND THEIR CORRELATION WITH RACIAL AND ECONOMIC STATUS OF SURROUNDING COMMUNITIES (1983).
61. COMM'N ON RACIAL JUSTICE, UNITED CHURCH OF CHRIST, TOXIC WASTE AND RACE IN THE UNITED STATES: A NATIONAL REPORT ON THE RACIAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITIES WITH HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES (1987).
62. COLE, FOSTER, supra note 29. 40.
63. The Group of Ten included the Audubon Society, Environmental Defense Fund, Environmental Policy Institute/Friends of the Earth, Izaak Walton League, National Parks and Conservation Association, National Wildlife Federation, Natural Resources Defense Council, Sierra Club, Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, and The Wilderness Society. For more discussion.
64. Sandler & Pezzullo, supra note 6, at 3-5;
65. Veronica Eady, Warren County and the Birth of a Movement: The Troubled Marriage Between Environmentalism and Civil Rights 1 GOLDEN GATE U. ENVTL. L. J. 41 (2007).
66. Sandler & Pezzullo, supra note 6, at 4.
67. FIRST NATIONAL PEOPLE OF COLOR ENVIRONMENTAL LEADERSHIP SUMMIT, PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE (1991), http://www.ejnet.org/ej/principles.pdf.
68. Exec. Order No. 12,898, 59 Fed. Reg. 7,629 (Feb. 16, 1994) (amending E.O. 12,250 (Nov. 2, 1980), amended by E.O. 12,948 (Jan. 30, 1995)). For an examination of environmental justice and public policy.
69. EDWARDO L. RHODES, ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE IN AMERICAN: A NEW PARADIGM (2005).
70. The People of Color Environmental Summit II was held in Washington, D.C., October 23-26, 2002. Information on the summit can be found at the website of the Environ mental Justice Resource Center, http://www.ejrc.cau.edu/EJSUMMITwlecome.html (last visited Mar. 30, 2010).
71. Growing literature focuses on addressing the slow progress in effecting change.
72. Robert Bullard & Glenn S. Johnson, Environmental Justice: Grassroots Activism and Its Impact on Public Policy Decision Making, 56 J. SOC. ISSUES 555, 555-78 (2000).
73. JONES, supra note 20.
74. Civil Rights Act of 1964 §§ 601-05, 42 U.S.C. §§ 2000d to 2000d-4 (2006).
75. S. Camden Citizens in Action v. N.J. Dep't of Envtl. Prot., 145 F. Supp. 2d 446 (D.N.J. 2001).
76. The first ruling on this case was a victory for residents. Id. In the district court, South Camden residents argued that their community was unfairly targeted for another polluting industry. Id. Already burdened with numerous polluting industries, including a superfund site, plaintiffs argued that the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection permit allowing for a cement manufacturing plant to open in their community was unjust. Id. The case highlighted the burdened residents of this low-income community, where approximately 91 percent of the residents were people of color. Id. The community already included 'two Superfund sites, several contaminated and abandoned industrial sites, and many ...operating facilities, including chemical companies, waste facilities, food processing companies, automotive shops, and a petroleum coke transfer station.' S. Camden Citizens in Action v. N.J. Dep't of Envtl. Prot., 274 F.3d 771, 775 (3d Cir. 2001).
77. Alexander v. Sandoval, 532 U.S. 275 (2001)
78. rejecting the right of individuals to sue based on unintentional acts of discrimination). This in essence, allowed industries to argue that while their pollution or facility siting may produce a disparate result, they cannot be sued if their intention was not explicitly discriminatory.
79. BRYANT, supra note 15;
80. BULLARD, supra note 10;
81. COLE & FOSTER supra note 29;
82. PELLOW supra note 34;
83. Omar Pomar, Toxic Racism on a New Jersey Waterfront, in THE QUEST FOR ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE POLITICS OF POLLUTION 125-141 (Robert Bullard ed., 2003);
84. Sandler & Pezzullo, supra note 6.
85. Laura Pulido, Rethinking Environmental Racism: White Privilege and Urban Development in Southern California, 90 ANNALS ASS'N. AM. GEOGRAPHY 12 (2000);
86. Dorceta E. Taylor, The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm: Injustice Framing and the Social Construction of Environmental Discourses, 43 AM. BEHAV. SCIENTIST 508-580 (2000).
87. CHRISTOPHER H. FOREMAN, THE PROMISE AND PERIL OF ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE (1998);
88. RYAN HOLIFIELD, ACTOR-NETWORK THEORY AS A CRITICAL APPROACH TO ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: A CASE AGAINST SYNTHESIS WITH URBAN POLITICAL ECOLOGY (2009).
89. In addition to scholarly work, our personal and academic everyday lives will need to be inclusive of racial and socioeconomic justice, political activism, and environmental consciousness.
90. After 40 years of the civil rights movement, some think that we talk too much about race within the environmental justice movement, with some activists arguing that changing the name to exclude racism is, in essence, watering down the discourse, making race less relevant in order to make the issue palpable to a race-exhausted public.
91. For a full discussion on the challenges of incorporating social justice concerns in the sustainable communities efforts,
92. CHITEWERE & TAYLOR, supra note 18.
93. Gordon Walker & Harriet Bulkeley, Geographies of Environmental Justice, 37 GEOFORUM 655, 655-59 (2006).
94. Wolf, supra note 8;
95. IMMANUEL WALLERSTEIN, THE MODERN WORLD SYS- TEM I: CAPITALIST AGRICULTURE AND THE ORIGINS OF THE EUROPEAN WORLD ECONOMY IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY (1974).
96. Recent anthologies demonstrate the interdisciplinary uses of political ecology.
97. REIMAGINING POLITICAL ECOLOGY (Aletta Biersack & James B. Greenberg eds., 2006).
98. PAUL ROBBINS, POLITICAL ECOLOGY: A CRITICAL INTRODUCTION (2004).
99. These explanations often excluded political and economic forces that produced inequality.
100. BLAIKIE, & BROOKFIELD, supra note 8.
101. ROBBINS V, supra note 59, at 12.
102. Anthropologists have debated the nature/culture dichotomy for many years.
103. Arturo Escobar, Constructing Nature: Elements for a Post-structural Political Ecology in RICHARD PEET & MICHAEL WATTS, LIBERATION ECOLOGIES 46-68 (1996).
104. This argument was made by scholars who thought political ecology had gone too far in blaming all ecological crises on political and economic forces. For this critique.
105. Andrew P. Vayda & Bradley B. Walters, Against Political Ecology, 27 HUM. ECOLOGY 167, 167-79 (1999).
106. Kevin DeLuca, A Wilderness Environmentalism Manifesto: Contesting the Infinite Self- Absorption of Humans, in Sandler & Pezzullo, supra note 6.
107. HOLIFIELD, supra note 52.
108. Maureen G. Reed & Shannon Christie, Environmental Geography: We're Not Quite Home-Reviewing the Gender Gap, 33 PROGRESS HUM. GEOGRAPHY 246, 246-255 (2009).
109. Id. Id.
110. The suggestion of the Third World within highlights that the United States contains many of the same economic, political, and social problems that scholars have addressed abroad. Our poor communities of color suffer many of the same consequences the poor in the Third World experience. Thus, it is useful to turn the political ecology lens that has focused its gaze on environmental injustices abroad onto comparable problems in the United States.
111. R.A. Schroeder, K. St. Martin & K E. Albert, Political Ecology in North America: Discovering the Third World Within?, 27 GEOFORUM (2006).
112. Walker & Louise Fortmann, Whose Landscape? A Political Ecology of the "Exurban" Sierra, 10 CULTURAL GEOGRAPHIES 469, 469-491 (2003)
113. James McCarthy, First World Political Ecology: Directions and Challenges, 37 ENV'T & PLAN. A 953, 953-958 (2005).
114. McCarthy, supra note 69.
115. Noel Castree, Making First World Political Ecology, 39 ENV'T & PLAN. A 2030, 2030-536 (2007).
116. Louise Fortmann, Bonanza! The Unasked Questions: Domestic Land Tenure through International Lenses, 9 SOC'Y & NAT. RESOURCES 537, 537-547 (1996).
117. Critiques of climate change discussions have raised concerns that race and class are again marginalized from the discussion.
118. The Richmond, California, ecovillage is located in an urban environment and focuses on a community garden that keeps the project rooted within the larger community. Also, although African Americans and other people of color have been less present than their white counterparts in the major environmental groups, their concern for environmental problems has been equal, just not categorized in the same way.
119. Dorceta E. Taylor, Blacks and the Environment: Toward an Explanation of the Concern and Action Gap between Blacks and Whites, 21 ENV'T & BEHAV. 175, 175-205 (1989).
120. In the late 1960s, Laura Nader made a call for studying up. By looking at institutions of power, she advocated for anthropology to broaden its gaze to include powerful institutions and individuals who contribute to injustices of others. This call is reflected in the work of many other scholars who are studying up by looking at the wealthy or privileged class.
121. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, The Primacy of the Ethical: Propositions for a Militant Anthropology, 36 CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 409, 409-440 (1995);
122. Sol Tax, Action Anthropology, 12 AM. INDIGENA 103, 103-109 (1952).
123. Laura Pulido and Louise Fortmann have also contributed to this study.
124. PEET & WATTS, supra note 62;
125. Nancy L. Peluso, A Political Ecology of Violence and Territory in West Kalimantan, 49 ASIA PAC. VIEWPOINT 48, 48-67 (2008).
126. Checker, supra note 7.
127. For an extensive discussion of the environmental and political problems of large dams,
128. PATRICK MCCULLY, SILENCED RIVERS: THE ECOLOGY AND POLITICS OF LARGE DAMS (2001).
129. Laura Pulido discusses the importance of addressing structural racism and the place that whites historically have held in being positioned outside of environmentally degraded spaces. By focusing the lens away from racism and towards privilege, Pulido forces us to consider the deep, complex, and holistic ways in which people of color are marginalized in polluted spaces.
130. Pulido, supra note 51.
131. Id. Id.
132. Id. Id.
133. Kestrel Perch Berries is a U-pick fruit community supported agriculture (CSA) farm that allows CSA members to receive weekly harvests of seasonal berries, but it also invites nonmembers to pick their own berries and pay for them by the pound. Kestrel Perch Berries, http://www.ithacaberries.com (last visited Apr. 21, 2010).
134. The concept of an ecological footprint is a tool to measure how much of the world's natural resources humans need to sustain themselves. Several organizations have emerged to develop the tool to visualize the impact our lifestyle has on depleting the planet's natural resources. For example, the nonprofit organization Redefining Progress includes a footprint calculator to allow a user to determine the number of planets necessary to replicate a participant's lifestyle. Redefining Progress, http://www.redefiningprogress. org (last visited Apr. 3, 2010).
135. During the time I conducted my ethnographic research in the community, the mission statement on the community website and in newsletters was to 'redesign the human habitat.' However, residents were sometimes concerned that the statement was too bold and misleading, and put pressure on the community to be replicable. As of March 31, 2010, the original mission statement no longer appears on the ecovillage website.
136. The World Commission on Environment and Development definition of sustainability includes: 'meeting our needs today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs.' BRUNDTLAND REPORT, supra note 12. 86. As a cultural anthropologist, I was warmly welcomed into the community. Residents sometimes expressed pride in having their own anthropologist study them; justifying perhaps, that they were indeed creating a village. Others commented that it was exotic to have an African anthropologist studying them, suggesting a reversal of roles of the 'other observed' studying the observer.
137. The SoNG was at the beginning of their construction phase during 2002. They currently have 30 households.
138. I examine the sustainable lifestyle as a holistic way to incorporate social and environmental sustainability into the everyday life of residents.
139. Interview with resident, EVI (2001).
140. Data for this project was collected during my ethnographic fieldwork in the community from 2000-2002.
141. Scholars who work on gated communities have pointed to the exclusionary nature of the neighborhood design, but they also point out that exclusionary communities can have the effect of limiting discussion about social and political problems to community without input from the wider community. The disappearance of public space also decreases civic engagement amongst all community members in a city.
142. Setha Low, The Edge and the Center: Gated Communities and the Discourse of Urban Fear, 103 AM. ANTHROPOLOGY 45, 45-58 (2001);
143. THERESA CALDEIRA, CITY OF WALLS: CRIME, SEGREGATION, AND CITIZENSHIP IN SA ̃ O PAULO (2006).
144. Kirby, supra note 21;
145. WALKER, supra note 17;
146. Fischetti, supra note 21.
147. WALKER, supra note 17.
148. Although ecovillages suggest that they are new models of middle-class families, upper middle-class is a more accurate description than middleclass.
149. JULIAN AGYEMAN, SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES AND THE CHALLENGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE (2005); Reed & Christie, supra note 66.