Thomistic natural law as Darwinian natural right

Social Philosophy and Policy

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 1-31

  Arnhart, Larry ^a  

^a NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 8344242265     PISSN: 02650525     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s026505250118101x     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), 3, 129, 563.
2. Edward O. Wilson, Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998).
3. Larry Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right: The Biological Ethics of Human Nature (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998).
4. "Ius naturale est, quod natura omnia animalia docuit." Justinian, Justinian's Institutes, ed. and trans. Peter Birks and Grant McLeod (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 1.2.
5. For the history of Ulpian's remarks in medieval thought, see Michael Bertram Crowe, The Changing Profile of the Natural Law (The Hague, The Netherlands: Nijhoff, 1977), 43-51, 142-55. Crowe finds Aquinas's use of Ulpian's definition of natural right puzzling, because Crowe wants to interpret natural law in a Kantian way, as a set of purely rational principles set apart from animal nature.
6. In my translations of Aquinas's Latin, I have tried to be as literal as possible.
7. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 94, a. 2.
8. Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " secs. 9, 21, 94, 106-7.
9. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 59, a. 1; I, q. 80, a. 1; I-II, q. 1, a. 2; I-II, q. 6, a. 1-4; I-II, q. 26, a. 1; I-II, q. 35, a. 1; I-II, q. 41, a. 3.
10. Ibid., I-II, q. 94, a. 2; I-II, q. 95, a. 4, ad 1; II-II, q. 57, a. 3; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " sec. 1019.
11. Ibid., I-II, q. 94, a. 2; I-II, q. 95, a. 4, ad 1; II-II, q. 57, a. 3; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " sec. 1019.
12. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 46, a. 5; I-II, q. 51, a. 1; I-II, q. 63, a. 1.
13. Aristotle, Generation of Animals, 767b24-769b31.
14. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 78, a. 4; I, q. 80, a. 1; I, q. 83, a. 1; I-II, q. 6, a. 2; I-II, q. 40, a. 3; I-II, q. 58, a. 1; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "De Anima, " secs. 629, 874.
15. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I, q. 78, a. 4; I, q. 80, a. 1; I, q. 83, a. 1; I-II, q. 6, a. 2; I-II, q. 40, a. 3; I-II, q. 58, a. 1; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "De Anima, " secs. 629, 874.
16. For a good survey of the evidence in Aquinas's writings that supports this conclusion, see Judith Barad, Aquinas on the Nature and Treatment of Animals (San Francisco: International Scholars Publications, 1995). For the argument that Aquinas's view of human nature and natural law is rooted in a "biological paradigm, " see Anthony J. Lisska, Aquinas's Theory of Natural Law: An Analytic Reconstruction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 68, 96-109, 131, 189-91, 198-201, 218-22, 258.
17. For a good survey of the evidence in Aquinas's writings that supports this conclusion, see Judith Barad, Aquinas on the Nature and Treatment of Animals (San Francisco: International Scholars Publications, 1995). For the argument that Aquinas's view of human nature and natural law is rooted in a "biological paradigm, " see Anthony J. Lisska, Aquinas's Theory of Natural Law: An Analytic Reconstruction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), 68, 96-109, 131, 189-91, 198-201, 218-22, 258.
18. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 57, a. 3; Suppl., q. 41, a. 1; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " sec. 1019.
19. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-II, q. 57, a. 3; Suppl., q. 41, a. 1; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " sec. 1019.
20. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 123.
21. Ibid., bk. 3, chaps. 122-23.
22. Aquinas, Summa Theolagiae, Suppl., q. 41, a. 2; Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 123.
23. Aquinas, Summa Theolagiae, Suppl., q. 41, a. 2; Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 123.
24. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Suppl., q. 65, a. 1; Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 124.
25. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Suppl., q. 65, a. 1; Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 124.
26. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Suppl., q. 54, a. 3; Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 125.
27. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Suppl., q. 54, a. 3; Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 125.
28. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, bk. 3, chap. 123.
29. Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "De Anima, " secs. 395-98, 631-35, 643-50, 803-4, 812-46.
30. See James A. Weisheipl, ed., Albertus Magnus and the Sciences (Toronto, Canada: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1980).
31. Albertus Magnus, On Animals: A Medieval Summa Zoologica, trans. Kenneth F. Kitchell, Jr., and Irven Michael Resnick (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 587.
32. Ibid., 1415-18.
33. Ibid., 766-73, 1420-25.
34. Ibid., 1420-21.
35. Ibid., 58-62, 64-67, 93, 745-47, 1420, 1446-47.
36. John Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 401; John Finnis, Aquinas: Moral, Political, and Legal Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 82, 103, 116, 147-48, 153-54.
37. John Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), 401; John Finnis, Aquinas: Moral, Political, and Legal Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 82, 103, 116, 147-48, 153-54.
38. Ralph McInerny, Ethica Thomistica: The Moral Philosophy of Thomas Aquinas (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America, 1982), 36-38, 56.
39. See Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right.
40. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 56, 139, 152, 166-67, 183, 220.
41. Alasdair MacIntyre, Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues (Chicago: Open Court, 1999), x.
42. Ibid., 5-6, 11-12.
43. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, chaps. 14-15.
44. Thomas Hobbes, De Cive, chap. 1.
45. Hobbes, Leviathan, chap. 17; Hobbes, De Cive, chap. 5, par. 5; Thomas Hobbes, De Homine, chap. 10.
46. Hobbes, Leviathan, chap. 17; Hobbes, De Cive, chap. 5, par. 5; Thomas Hobbes, De Homine, chap. 10.
47. Hobbes, Leviathan, chap. 17; Hobbes, De Cive, chap. 5, par. 5; Thomas Hobbes, De Homine, chap. 10.
48. On Hobbes's dualism, see Leo Strauss, The Political Philosophy of Hobbes: Its Basis and Its Genesis, trans. Elsa M. Sinclair (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952), 7-9, 168-70.
49. Immanuel Kant, "Speculative Beginning of Human History, " in Kant, "Perpetual Peace" and Other Essays, trans. Ted Humphrey (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1983), 49-60; Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. Werner S. Pluhar (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1987), secs. 83-84.
50. Immanuel Kant, "Speculative Beginning of Human History, " in Kant, "Perpetual Peace" and Other Essays, trans. Ted Humphrey (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1983), 49-60; Immanuel Kant, Critique of Judgment, trans. Werner S. Pluhar (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 1987), secs. 83-84.
51. See Robert A. Greene, "Instinct of Nature: Natural Law, Synderesis, and the Moral Sense, " Journal of the History of Ideas 58, no. 2 (April 1997): 173-94.
52. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, ed. D. D. Raphael and A. L. Macfie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 300-304, 321-27; Ian Simpson Ross, The Life of Adam Smith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 48-59, 159-64.
53. Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, ed. D. D. Raphael and A. L. Macfie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 300-304, 321-27; Ian Simpson Ross, The Life of Adam Smith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 48-59, 159-64.
54. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 340-41.
55. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 2:687.
56. Ibid., 9-16.
57. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1155a3-b16; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " secs. 1538-50.
58. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1155a3-b16; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics, " secs. 1538-50.
59. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 116-17, 129-30, 145.
60. Ibid., 326.
61. Ibid., 320.
62. Ibid., 270-72, 319-20.
63. Finnis, Aquinas, 62, 74-76, 78.
64. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a36-b6.
65. Aristotle, De Anima, 433a10-31; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a36-b6.
66. Aristotle, De Anima, 433a10-31; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 1139a36-b6.
67. Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's "De Anima, " secs. 395-98, 631-35, 643-50, 803-4, 812-46.
68. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 129, 142, 145, 219; Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, ed. R. L. Meek, D. D. Raphael, and P. G. Stein (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 141-43, 438.
69. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 129, 142, 145, 219; Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, ed. R. L. Meek, D. D. Raphael, and P. G. Stein (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 141-43, 438.
70. Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, 150-60.
71. Ibid., 163-66, 446-47.
72. Bernard Mandeville, The Fable of the Bees (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1924), 1:330.
73. Charles Darwin, Charles Darwin's Notebooks, 1836-1844, ed. Paul H. Barrett et al. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987), 537-38, 558, 563-64, 587-89, 618-29.
74. James Mackintosh, Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy (Edinburgh, Scotland: Adam and Charles Black, 1836).
75. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London: John Murray, 1871), 1:81-82.
76. Ibid., 1:70-106, 2:390-94.
77. Ibid., 1:70-106, 2:390-94.
78. Ibid., 1:70.
79. Ibid., 1:70-71; Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), 90.
80. Ibid., 1:70-71; Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason, trans. Lewis White Beck (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1956), 90.
81. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:80.
82. Ibid., 1:80-86.
83. Charles Darwin, "The Origin of Species" and "The Descent of Man" (New York: Modern Library, 1936), 485-86, 896.
84. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:82, 1:93, 1:106, 1:161-66.
85. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:82, 1:93, 1:106, 1:161-66.
86. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:82, 1:93, 1:106, 1:161-66.
87. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:82, 1:93, 1:106, 1:161-66.
88. Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments, 76-89, 94, 106.
89. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:70, 1:88-89, 1:391-92, 2:390-92.
90. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:70, 1:88-89, 1:391-92, 2:390-92.
91. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:70, 1:88-89, 1:391-92, 2:390-92.
92. Darwin, Descent of Man, 1:70, 1:88-89, 1:391-92, 2:390-92.
93. Ibid., 1:72, 1:165-66.
94. Ibid., 1:72, 1:165-66.
95. George Jackson Mivart, "Darwin's Descent of Man, " reprinted in David Hull, ed., Darwin and His Critics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 354-84.
96. Thomas Huxley, Evolution and Ethics, and Other Essays (New York: D. Appleton, 1894), 31, 44-45, 59, 68, 75-77, 80-85; George Jackson Mivart, "Evolution in Mr. Huxley, " Popular Science Monthly 44 (May 1893): 319-33.
97. Thomas Huxley, Evolution and Ethics, and Other Essays (New York: D. Appleton, 1894), 31, 44-45, 59, 68, 75-77, 80-85; George Jackson Mivart, "Evolution in Mr. Huxley, " Popular Science Monthly 44 (May 1893): 319-33.
98. See Paul Lawrence Farber, The Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 58-69.
99. George Williams, "A Sociobiological Expansion of Evolution and Ethics, " in James Paradis and George Williams, eds., Evolution and Ethics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 213.
100. See Timothy Stroup, Westermarck's Ethics (Abo, Finland: Abo Akademi, 1982); and Larry Arnhart, "Westermarck's Ethics as Darwinian Natural Right" (paper presented at the International Westermarck Symposium, Helsinki, Finland, November 19-22, 1998).
101. See Timothy Stroup, Westermarck's Ethics (Abo, Finland: Abo Akademi, 1982); and Larry Arnhart, "Westermarck's Ethics as Darwinian Natural Right" (paper presented at the International Westermarck Symposium, Helsinki, Finland, November 19-22, 1998).
102. See Robin Fox, The Red Lamp of Incest, 2d ed. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983); and Arthur P. Wolf, Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association: A Chinese Brief for Edward Westermarck (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).
103. See Robin Fox, The Red Lamp of Incest, 2d ed. (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1983); and Arthur P. Wolf, Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association: A Chinese Brief for Edward Westermarck (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1995).
104. Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, 5th ed., 3 vols. (New York: Allerton, 1922); Edward Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1906); Edward Westermarck, Ethical Relativity (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1932).
105. Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, 5th ed., 3 vols. (New York: Allerton, 1922); Edward Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1906); Edward Westermarck, Ethical Relativity (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1932).
106. Edward Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage, 5th ed., 3 vols. (New York: Allerton, 1922); Edward Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2 vols. (London: Macmillan, 1906); Edward Westermarck, Ethical Relativity (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1932).
107. For an example of how a Westermarckian anthropological naturalism can support Thomistic natural law, see Thomas Davitt, The Basic Values in Law, rev. ed. (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1978).
108. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 1:22, 1:38, 1:53, 1:71, 3:365.
109. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 1:22, 1:38, 1:53, 1:71, 3:365.
110. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 1:22, 1:38, 1:53, 1:71, 3:365.
111. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 1:22, 1:38, 1:53, 1:71, 3:365.
112. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 1:22, 1:38, 1:53, 1:71, 3:365.
113. Ibid., 3:104, 3:107, 3:206
114. Ibid., 3:104, 3:107, 3:206
115. Ibid., 3:104, 3:107, 3:206
116. 3:221-22;
117. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2:387-92.
118. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 2:82-239; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2:364-81.
119. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 2:82-239; Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 2:364-81.
120. See Wolf, Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association, 506.
121. Claude Lévi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, trans. James Harle Bell, John Richard von Sturmer, and Rodney Needham (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969), 30-31.
122. Westermarck, Ethical Relativity, 109.
123. Westermarck, Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 1:10.
124. Ibid., 2:742.
125. See Richard C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 137; and Philip Kitcher, Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 280, 348.
126. See Richard C. Lewontin, Steven Rose, and Leon J. Kamin, Not in Our Genes: Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 137; and Philip Kitcher, Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985), 280, 348.
127. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 2:82, 2:88, 2:192, 2:201-3.
128. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 2:82, 2:88, 2:192, 2:201-3.
129. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 2:82, 2:88, 2:192, 2:201-3.
130. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 2:82, 2:88, 2:192, 2:201-3.
131. Wolf, Sexual Attraction and Childhood Association, 497-515.
132. Ibid., 435-38.
133. Ibid., 388-422.
134. See William H. Durham, Coevolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 293-309.
135. Wilson, Consilience, 3-13.
136. Ibid., 164.
137. Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 63-64; Wilson, Consilience, 132-33, 161-63.
138. Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 63-64; Wilson, Consilience, 132-33, 161-63.
139. Wilson, Consilience, 238-56.
140. Wilson, On Human Nature, 37-39, 68-69, 229; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 37, 71, 85-86, 147-58, 238, 357; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 64-65, 115, 119, 124-27, 133-38, 175-80; Michael Ruse and Edward O. Wilson, "Moral Philosophy as Applied Science, " Philosophy 61, no. 236 (April 1986): 173-92; Wilson, Consilience, 173-80.
141. Wilson, On Human Nature, 37-39, 68-69, 229; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 37, 71, 85-86, 147-58, 238, 357; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 64-65, 115, 119, 124-27, 133-38, 175-80; Michael Ruse and Edward O. Wilson, "Moral Philosophy as Applied Science, " Philosophy 61, no. 236 (April 1986): 173-92; Wilson, Consilience, 173-80.
142. Wilson, On Human Nature, 37-39, 68-69, 229; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 37, 71, 85-86, 147-58, 238, 357; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 64-65, 115, 119, 124-27, 133-38, 175-80; Michael Ruse and Edward O. Wilson, "Moral Philosophy as Applied Science, " Philosophy 61, no. 236 (April 1986): 173-92; Wilson, Consilience, 173-80.
143. Wilson, On Human Nature, 37-39, 68-69, 229; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 37, 71, 85-86, 147-58, 238, 357; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 64-65, 115, 119, 124-27, 133-38, 175-80; Michael Ruse and Edward O. Wilson, "Moral Philosophy as Applied Science, " Philosophy 61, no. 236 (April 1986): 173-92; Wilson, Consilience, 173-80.
144. Wilson, On Human Nature, 37-39, 68-69, 229; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 37, 71, 85-86, 147-58, 238, 357; Charles J. Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Promethean Fire: Reflections on the Origin of Mind (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 64-65, 115, 119, 124-27, 133-38, 175-80; Michael Ruse and Edward O. Wilson, "Moral Philosophy as Applied Science, " Philosophy 61, no. 236 (April 1986): 173-92; Wilson, Consilience, 173-80.
145. Wilson, Consilience, 112-15; Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1994).
146. Wilson, Consilience, 112-15; Antonio Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: G.P. Putnam, 1994).
147. On psychopaths as moral strangers, see Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right, 211-30.
148. For surveys of some of the biological research on human mating and parenting, see ibid., 89-160.
149. For instances of this ambiguity, see Wilson, Consilience, 55, 67-68, 70-71, 83-86, 109, 162-65, 167, 172-73, 240, 255, 263, 266, 276-77, 297-98.
150. Ibid., 255.
151. Ibid., 238-39, 248, 251.
152. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, I-II, q. 91, a. 4.
153. Ibid., I-II, q. 100, a. 11.
154. Ibid., I-II, q. 100, a. 1.
155. Ibid., III, q. 60, a. 2; Suppl., q. 42.