National energy policies and energy security in the context of climate change and global environmental risks: A theoretical framework for reconciling domestic and international law through a multiscalar and multilevel approach

European Energy and Environmental Law Review

Volumn 20, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 232-244

  Farah, Paolo Davide ^a,b   Rossi, Piercarlo ^c  

^a TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY   (China)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TURIN   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PIEDMONT   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; DECISION MAKING; DEMAND ANALYSIS; ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; ENERGY POLICY; ENVIRONMENTAL RISK; GLOBALIZATION; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; NATION STATE; NATIONAL PLANNING; PLANNING THEORY; STRATEGIC APPROACH; THEORETICAL STUDY;

EID: 82955207671     PISSN: 18793886     EISSN: 25890387     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.54648/eelr2011020     Document Type: Article

References (181)

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3. The impact of climate change, including the adverse accompanying socio-economic consequences of natural hazards, plays a conspicuous role in the spatial and economic development of any country. In developing national climate change policies it is important to forecast expected climate change impacts on the country's different natural zones and economic sectors, as well as to assess climate change vulnerability of human and social systems.
4. The uneven geographical distribution of non-renewable resources has great importance in determining the different possible scenarios of socioeconomic development. There is no controversy about the increasing import dependency of some Western states and their newly grown energy vulnerability which constitutes the background for inter-state resource conflicts.
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54. The Marrakech Agreement led to the creation of the WTO, which replaced the role of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The GATT has been operating since 1947and in 1995 it was incorporated as one of the WTO Agreements.
55. A. A. Fatouros at p. 368.
56. A. A. Fatouros at p. 370.
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59. For a general overview of the WTO rules, see P. Van Den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization (2nd ed., 2008) p. 917
60. M. Matsushita, T. Schoenbaum, P. Mavroidis, The World Trade Organization: Law, Practice and Policy (2003) p. 989
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62. P. Picone, A. Ligustro, Diritto dell'Organizzazione Mondiale del Commer-cio (2002) p. 505.
63. P. Delimatsis, Financial Innovation, Climate Change and the GATS: The Case of Renewable Energy Certificates", TILEC Discussion Paper DP 2008-032, September 2008, available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1272462.
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65. F. Sindico at p. 328.
66. I. Musselli, S. Zarrilli at p. 551.
67. C. Moyer, J. Wang, T. P. Stewart, on behalf of the United Steel, Paper and Forestry, Rubber, Manufacturing, Energy, Allied Industrial and Service Workers International Union, AFL-CIO CLC (USW), China Policies Affecting Trade and Investment in Green Technology", Petition for Relief under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974 as amended before the United States Trade Representative (USTR), Vol. 1 of 9: Petition and Exhibits s.1, September 9, 2010, p. 208.
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70. China ± Measures concerning Wind Power Equipment, WT/DS419, This case is actually still in consultations. The United States considers the Chinese measures inconsistent with Art. 3, 25.1, 25.2, 25.3, 25.4 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, with Pt I, para. 1.2 of the Protocol of China's Accession to the WTO and GATT 1994, Art. XVI:1.
71. Canada ± Certain Measures Affecting the Renewable Energy Generation Sector, WT/DS412. Japan considers the Canadian measures inconsistent with Art. 3.1(b), 3.2 of the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures, with Art. 2.1 of the Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMs) and of Art. III:4, III:5 of the GATT 1994.
72. Other important climate change-related treaties are the ECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979, entered into force 1983)
73. Monitoring and Evaluation Protocol (1984)
74. Sulphur Protocol (1985)
75. Nox Protocol (1988)
76. Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol (1991)
77. Sulphur Protocol (1994)
78. Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals (1998)
79. Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (1998)
80. Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidifica- tion, Eutrophication and Ground-Level Ozone (1999)
81. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985)
82. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987): EC Large Combustion Directive (1988/ 2001)
83. U.S.-Canada Air Quality Agreement (1991).
84. For readings on the common but differentiated respon-sibilities" principle, see P. Sands, Principles of International Environmental Law (2003) p. 1116
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86. P. Sands at p. 285
87. F. Sindico, Climate and Trade in a Divided World: Can Measures Adopted in the North End Up Shaping Climate Change Legislative Frameworks in the South?" in B. J. Richardson, Y. Le Bouthiller, H. McLeod-Kilmurray, S. Wood, Climate Law and Developing Coun-tries. Legal and Policy Challenges for the World Economy, New Horizons in Environmental and Energy Law (2009) at p. 361.
88. The London Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, art. 11, Nov. 13, 1972
89. The Abidjan Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment in the West and Central African Region, art. 4(1), March 23, 1981
90. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, art. 2(2), March 22, 1985
91. The Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean, art. 11(3), Feb. 16, 1976
92. and the Biodiversity Convention, Preamble and art. 20(4), June 5, 1992.
93. Art. 4, where all the commitments are listed taking into account each country's common but differentiated respon-sibilities" and specific national and regional development priorities, objectives and circumstances" and art. 12, which establishes specific commitments which apply to developed countries only.
94. P. Sands at p. 368.
95. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change hereinafter (UNFCCC), May 9, 1992, 31 I.L.M. 849, available at http://www.unfccc.de/resource/conv/in-dex.html.
96. G. Marceau, Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions, The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and the MEAs and other Treaties" [2001] 35(6) J. World Trade at p. 1081.
97. There is even the risk of exclusively scalar analytics that disregard the dynamics of the different elements.
98. K. R. Cox, Spaces of dependence, spaces of engagement and the politics of scale, or looking for local politics" [1998] 17 Political Geography at p. 1.
99. See N. F. Sayre, Ecological and Geographical Scale: Parallels and Potential for Integration" [2005] 29 Progress in Human Geography at p. 276.
100. The global dynamics can cut across institutional size and the encasements of national states.
101. See S. Sassen, Territory and Territoriality in the Global Economy" [2000] 15 Int'l Sociology at p. 372
102. Y. H. Ferguson, R. J. B. Jones, Political Space. Frontiers of Change and Governance in a Globalizing World (2002) p. 319.
103. D. Held, A.G. McGrew, Globalization theory: approaches and controversies, (2007) at p. 99.
104. For a survey, P. S. Berman, Global Legal Pluralism" [2007] 80 Southern California L. Rev. at p. 1155
105. K. Campbell, From Rio to Kyoto: The Use of Voluntary Agreements to Implement the Climate Change Convention" [1998] 7(2) Rev. Euro. Comm'y. Int'l. Envtl. L. at p. 159
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107. Essentially see W. C. G. Burns, H. M. Osofsky, Adjudicating Climate Change. State, National, and International Approaches (2009) p. 399.
108. T. W. Walde, A. J. Gunst, International Energy Trade and Access to Energy Networks" [2002] 36(2) J. World Trade at p. 191.
109. For the largest multi-national carbon credit trading system see A. D. Elleman, B. K. Buchner, The European Union Emissions Trading Scheme: Origins, Allocation, and Early Results" [2007] 1 Rev. Envtl. Eco. Pol'y at p. 66.
110. M. Sell, Trade, Climate Change and the Transition to a Sustainable Energy Future: Framing the Debate", in Linking Trade, Climate Change and Energy (2006) at p. 1.
111. L. Tamiotti, V. Kulacoglu, National Climate Change Mitigation Measures and their Implications for the Multilateral Trading System; Key Findings of the WTO/UNEP Report on Trade and Climate Change" [2009] 43(5) J. World Trade at p. 1115 and specifically pp. 1120-1129
112. see also P. Delimatsis, Financial Innovation, Climate Change and the GATS: The Case of Renewable Energy Certificates", TILEC Discussion Paper DP 2008-032, September 2008, available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1272462.
113. J. Selivanova, The WTO and Energy: WTO Rules and Agreements of Relevance to the Energy Sector (2007) at p. 32
114. E. Vranes, Trade and the Environment: Fundamental Issues in International Law, WTO Law, and Legal Theory (2009) p. 441.
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116. biofuel is one of the sectors in which dumping is often applied by private companies, for a general overview of the antidumping rules, please
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118. C. Voigt, WTO Law and International Emissions Trading: Is there Potential for Conflict?" [2008] 2 Carbon Climate L. Rev. at p. 54.
119. See also C. Carlane, at p. 45
120. Z. Yuhong, Overcoming Green Barriers': China's First Five Years Into the WTO" [2007] 41(3) J. World Trade at p. 535;
121. S. L. Sakmar at p. 89
122. E. Vranes, Climate Change and the WTO: EU Emission Trading and the WTO Disciplines on Trade in Goods, Services and Investment Protection" [2009] 43 J. World Trade at p. 707
123. J. Werksman, Greenhouse Gas Emissions Trading and the WTO" [1999] 8(3) Rev. Euro. Comm'Y Int'l. Envtl. L. at p. 251
124. G. Marceau, Conflicts of Norms and Conflicts of Jurisdictions, The Relationship between the WTO Agreement and the MEAs and other Treaties" [2001] 35(6) J. World Trade at p. 1081
125. D. A. Motaal, Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and WTO Rules. Why the Burden of Accommoda- tion should shift to MEAs" [2001] 35(6) J. World Trade at p. 1215
126. F. Sindico, The EU and Carbon Leakage: How to Reconcile Border Adjustments with the WTO?" [2008] 17(6) Euro. En. Envtl. L. Rev. at p. 328.
127. R. M. Stein, Import of Biofuels into and the Marketing of Biofuels in the European Union: an Analysis of the Current Law on Customs, Energy Taxes and Biofuel Quotas" [2008] 26 J. Energy. Nat. Resources L. at p. 600
128. regarding the border tax adjustments see J. De Cendra, Can Emissions Trading Schemes be Coupled with Border Tax Adjustments? An Analysis vis-a-vis WTO Law" [2006] 15(2) Rev. Euro. Comm'y & Int'l Envtl L. at p. 131
129. R. Vanden Brink, Competitiveness Border Adjustments in U.S. Climate Change Proposals Violate GATT: Suggestions to Utilize GATT's Environmental Exceptions" [2010] 21 Colo. J. Int'l Envtl. L. & Pol'y at p. 85
130. G. Goh, The World Trade Organization, the Kyoto Protocol and Energy Tax Adjustment at the Border" [2004] 38(3) J. World Trade at p. 392
131. M. Waggoner, Why and How to Tax Carbon" [2008-2009] 20(1) Colo. J. Int'l Envtl. L. & Pol'y at p. 1.
132. L. Tamiotti, V. Kulacoglu at p. 1115 and specifically pp. 1134-1137
133. R. Howse, Climate Mitigation Subsidies and the WTO Legal Framework: A Policy Analysis" (2010) p. 29, available: http://www.iisd.org
134. P. R. Vergano, E. C. Laurenza at p. 223.
135. E. Bonadio, Climate Change and Intellectual Property" [2010] 1 Eur. J. Risk Reg, at p. 72.
136. European Commission. Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion and use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/ 77/EC and 2008/30/EC (L 140/16, Official Journal of the European Union, 5.6.2009.
137. S. Zarrilli, International Trade in Environmental Services and the Developing Countries' in Energy and Environmental Services: Negotiating Objectives and Devel- opment Priorities (2003) at p. 287
138. OECD, Trade Policy Studies, Trade that Benefits the Environment and Develop- ment: Opening Markets for Environmental Goods and Services (2005).
139. As an independent international organization related to the United Nations system, the IAEA works to contribute to international peace and security in nuclear technology.
140. Such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).Such as the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
141. Such as the European Union.
142. Demand growth is strongest in the fastest growing economies, above all India and China, with the result of continued high prices for oil and gas and recurrent shortages.
143. See for instance the renationalization of the Russian energy industry, which has affected the CIS region and brought about the recent Russian-Ukrainian gas dispute.
144. See for instance the intervention of the French Govern- ment against the campaign led by the Italian company ENEL to take over the French company Suez.
145. S. Ranjan Pradhan, India, GCC and the Global Energy Regime: Exploring Interdependence and Outlook for Colla- boration (2008) p. 426.
146. S. Zhao, China's Global Search for Energy Security: cooperation and competition in AsiaPacific" [2008] 17 J. Contemp'y China at p. 207.
147. N. Kroes, Improving Competition in European Energy Markets through Effective Unbundling" [2007-2008] 31 Fordham Int'l L.J. at p. 1387.
148. For a survey see F. P. Sioshansi, W. Pfaffenberger, Electricity market reform: an international perspective (2006) p. 688.
149. A. E. Boyle, M. R. Anderson, Human Rights Approaches to Environmental Protection (1998) p. 313
150. R. Picolotti, J. D. Taillant, Linking Human Rights and the Environment (2010) p. 264
151. J. Hancock, Environmental Human Rights: Power, Ethics, and Law (2003) p. 207
152. M. Throne, Establishing Environment as Human Right" [1991] 19 Denver J. Int'l L. Politics at p. 301
153. A. Kiss, D. Shelton, Human Right and the Environment" [2004] Int'l Envtl. L. at p. 661
154. A. A. Fatouros at p. 404
155. E. Gerrard, Climate Change and Human Rights: Issues and Opportunities for cont. Indigenous Peoples" [2008] 31(3) University of New South Wales L. J. at p. 941.
156. J. Von Doussa QC, Human Rights and Climate Change: a Tragedy in the Making" [2008] 31(3) University of New South Wales L. J. at p. 953.
157. See for instance the 1972 Stockholm Declaration adopted at the UN Conference on the Human Environment
158. The 1987 Brundtland Report, and the 1998 Aarhus Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision- Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters.
159. Or by the controversial definition of the third generation of human rights.
160. P. Alston, A Third Generation of Solidarity Rights: Progressive Development of Obfuscation of International Human Rights?" [1982] 29 Netherlands Int'l L. Rev. at p. 309.
161. J. R. Bauer, D. A. Bell, The East Asian Challenge For Human Rights (1999) p. 412
162. A. J. Langlois, The Politics Of Justice And Human Rights: Southeast Asia And Universalist Theory (2001) p. 214
163. D. Bell, Beyond Democracy: Political Thinking for an East Asia Context (2006), p. 408.
164. A. J Bradbrook, J. G. Gardam, M. Cormier, A Human Dimension to the Energy Debate: Access to Modern Energy Services" [2008] 26 J. Energy Nat. Resources L. at p. 526.
165. The situation varies in the different states. See for example the role of environmental legislation in European countries like the UK with compulsory dismissal of coal and oil fired power stations contrary to energy security needs. At the same time, the EU energy policy agenda is centred on the integration of security of supply, efficiency and environmental compatibility.
166. A. Correlje, C. C. Van Der Linde, Energy supply security and geopolitics: A European perspective" [2006] 34 Energy Pol'y at p. 532.
167. M. Koskenniemi, P. Leino, Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties" [2002] 15 Leiden J. Int'l L. at p. 553.
168. N. DE Sadeleer, Environmental principles: from political slogans to legal rules (2002) at p. 257.
169. D. Shelton, Normative Hierarchy in International Law" [2006] American. J. Int'l L. at p. 291.
170. On the Chinese case see P. B. Potter, Globalization and Economic Regulation in China: Selective Adaptation of Globalized Norms and Practices" [2003] 2 Washington University Global Studies L. R. at p. 119.
171. See also W. P. Alford, B. L. Liebman at p. 703.
172. See H. H. Koh, Transnational Legal Process" [1996] 75 Nebraska L. R. at p. 181.
173. See GATT Article XXIV. Cf. L. Bartels, F. Ortino, Regional Trade Agreements and the WTO Legal System (2006) p. 642
174. J. Bhagwati, Termites in the World Trading System (2008) p. 160
175. K. A. Chase, Multilateralism Compromised: The Mysterious Origins of GATT Article XXIV" [2006] 5 World Trade R. at p. 1
176. A. Fabbricotti, Gli accordi di integrazione economica regionale e il diritto dell'Organizzazione Mondiale del Commercio (2nd ed., 2009), p. 52.
177. The links between international trade and security have been recognised for centuries.
178. E. D. Mansfield, J. C. Pevehouse, Trade blocs, trade flows, and international conflict" [2000] 54 Int'l Organization at p. 775
179. E. D. Mansfield, J. C. Pevehouse, Preferential peace: why preferential trading arrangements inhibit interstate conflict' in E. D. Mansfield, B. M. Pollins, Economic Interdependence and International Conflict: New Perspectives on an Enduring Debate (2003) at p. 222.
180. See the example of the European Union as an economic- ally successful trade agreement and a peaceful political arrangement.
181. J. Crawford, R. Fiorentino, The chan-ging landscape of regional trade agreements' Discussion Paper 8, Geneva, WTO, (2005) p. 38.