Current treatment of metastatic bladder cancer and future directions

Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy

Volumn 11, Issue 12, 2011, Pages 1851-1862

  Lei, Amy Q ^a   Cheng, Liang ^b   Pan, Chong Xian ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c VA NORTHERN CALIFORNIA HEALTH CARE SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

chemotherapy; cisplatin; gemcitabine; metastatic urothelial carcinoma; targeted agents

Indexed keywords

AFLIBERCEPT; BEVACIZUMAB; CARBOPLATIN; CISPLATIN; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DOCETAXEL; DOXORUBICIN; EPIRUBICIN; FLUOROURACIL; GEFITINIB; GEMCITABINE; GRANULOCYTE COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR; IFOSFAMIDE; IXABEPILONE; METHOTREXATE; MITOMYCIN C; NEDAPLATIN; OXALIPLATIN; PACLITAXEL; PEMETREXED; TRASTUZUMAB; VASCULOTROPIN; VINBLASTINE; VINFLUNINE;

ADVANCED CANCER; ALOPECIA; ANEMIA; AORTA DISSECTION; ARTHRALGIA; ASTHENIA; BLADDER CARCINOMA; BLEEDING; BLOOD TOXICITY; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CANCER SURVIVAL; CARDIOTOXICITY; CHEMOTHERAPY INDUCED EMESIS; CONSTIPATION; CYSTECTOMY; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG MEGADOSE; FATIGUE; FEBRILE NEUTROPENIA; HEARING IMPAIRMENT; HEART DEATH; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE EJECTION FRACTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FAILURE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; KIDNEY INJURY; LEUKOPENIA; LUNG EMBOLISM; LUNG HEMORRHAGE; METASTASIS; MOLECULARLY TARGETED THERAPY; MONOTHERAPY; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROPATHY; NEUTROPENIA; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PAIN; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PERSONALIZED MEDICINE; PROGNOSIS; PROTEINURIA; REVIEW; SALVAGE THERAPY; SCHISTOSOMIASIS; SEPSIS; SIDE EFFECT; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SURVIVAL TIME; TACHYCARDIA; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; TRANSITIONAL CELL CARCINOMA; TUMOR VASCULARIZATION;

ANTINEOPLASTIC COMBINED CHEMOTHERAPY PROTOCOLS; HUMANS; MOLECULAR TARGETED THERAPY; URINARY BLADDER NEOPLASMS;

EID: 82355164091     PISSN: 14737140     EISSN: 17448328     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/era.11.181     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. Jemal A, Siegel R, Xu J, Ward E. Cancer statistics, 2010. CA Cancer J. Clin. 60(5), 277-300 (2010).
2. Fleming JD, Cooper JS, Jenson DE et al. AJCC (American Joint Committee on Cancer) Cancer Staging Manuel (5th Edition).Fleming JD, Cooper JS, Jenson DE et al. (Eds).Lippincott-Raven, PA, USA (1997).
3. Sylvester RJ, van der Meijden AP, Oosterlinck W et al. Predicting recurrence and progression in individual patients with stage Ta T1 bladder cancer using EORTC risk tables: a combined analysis of 2596 patients from seven EORTC trials. Eur. Urol. 49(3), 466-465; discussion 475-467 (2006).
4. Herr HW, Schwalb DM, Zhang ZF et al. Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin therapy prevents tumor progression and death from superficial bladder cancer: ten-year follow-up of a prospective randomized trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 13(6), 1404-1408 (1995).
5. Herr HW, Badalament RA, Amato DA, Laudone VP, Fair WR, Whitmore WF Jr. Superficial bladder cancer treated with bacillus Calmette-Guerin: a multivariate analysis of factors affecting tumor progression. J. Urol. 141(1), 22-29 (1989). (Pubitemid 19028816)
6. Cookson MS, Herr HW, Zhang ZF, Soloway S, Sogani PC, Fair WR. The treated natural history of high risk superficial bladder cancer: 15-year outcome. J. Urol. 158(1), 62-67 (1997). (Pubitemid 27251595)
7. Herr HW. Uncertainty, stage and outcome of invasive bladder cancer. J. Urol. 152(2 Pt 1), 401-402 (1994). (Pubitemid 24221229)
8. Vieweg J, Gschwend JE, Herr HW, Fair WR. Pelvic lymph node dissection can be curative in patients with node positive bladder cancer. J. Urol. 161(2), 449-454 (1999).
9. Amin MB. Histological variants of urothelial carcinoma: diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic implications. Mod. Pathol. 22(Suppl. 2), S96-S118 (2009).
10. Samaratunga H, Khoo K. Micropapillary variant of urothelial carcinoma of the urinary bladder; a clinicopathological and immunohistochemical study. Histopathology 45(1), 55-64 (2004). (Pubitemid 38969562)
11. Comperat E, Roupret M, Yaxley J et al. Micropapillary urothelial carcinoma of the urinary bladder: a clinicopathological analysis of 72 cases. Pathology 42(7), 650-654 (2010).
12. Black PC, Brown GA, Dinney CP. The impact of variant histology on the outcome of bladder cancer treated with curative intent. Urol. Oncol. 27(1), 3-7 (2009).
13. Kamat AM, Gee JR, Dinney CP et al. The case for early cystectomy in the treatment of nonmuscle invasive micropapillary bladder carcinoma. J. Urol. 175(3 Pt 1), 881-885 (2006). (Pubitemid 43200002)
14. Ghoneim MA, Abdel-Latif M, el-Mekresh M et al. Radical cystectomy for carcinoma of the bladder: 2,720 consecutive cases 5 years later. J. Urol. 180(1), 121-127 (2008).
15. Heudel P, El Karak F, Ismaili N, Droz JP, Flechon A. Micropapillary bladder cancer: a review of Leon Berard Cancer Center experience. BMC Urol. 9, 5 (2009).
16. Loehrer PJ Sr, Einhorn LH, Elson PJ et al. A randomized comparison of cisplatin alone or in combination with methotrexate, vinblastine, and doxorubicin in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma: a cooperative group study. J. Clin. Oncol. 10(7), 1066-1073 (1992).
17. Roth BJ, Dreicer R, Einhorn LH et al. Significant activity of paclitaxel in advanced transitional-cell carcinoma of the urothelium: a Phase II trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. J. Clin. Oncol. 12(11), 2264-2270 (1994). (Pubitemid 24346693)
18. Witte RS, Elson P, Bono B et al. Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Phase II trial of ifosfamide in the treatment of previously treated advanced urothelial carcinoma. J. Clin. Oncol. 15(2), 589-593 (1997). (Pubitemid 27074226)
19. de Wit R, Kruit WH, Stoter G, de Boer M, Kerger J, Verweij J. Docetaxel (Taxotere): an active agent in metastatic urothelial cancer; results of a Phase II study in non-chemotherapy-pretreated patients. Br. J. Cancer 78(10), 1342-1345 (1998). (Pubitemid 28495247)
20. Lorusso V, Pollera CF, Antimi M et al. A Phase II study of gemcitabine in patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract previously treated with platinum. Italian Cooperative Group on Bladder Cancer. Eur. J. Cancer 34(8), 1208-1212 (1998). (Pubitemid 28342111)
21. Sweeney CJ, Roth BJ, Kabbinavar FF et al. Phase II study of pemetrexed for second-line treatment of transitional cell cancer of the urothelium. J. Clin. Oncol. 24(21), 3451-3457 (2006). (Pubitemid 46638903)
22. Sridhar SS, Canil CM, Chi KN et al. A Phase II study of the antisense oligonucleotide GTI-2040 plus docetaxel and prednisone as first-line treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer. Cancer Chemother. Pharmacol. 67(4), 927-933 (2011).
23. Saxman SB, Propert KJ, Einhorn LH et al. Long-term follow-up of a Phase III intergroup study of cisplatin alone or in combination with methotrexate, vinblastine, and doxorubicin in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma: a cooperative group study. J. Clin. Oncol. 15(7), 2564-2569 (1997). (Pubitemid 27289886)
24. Logothetis CJ, Dexeus FH, Finn L et al. A prospective randomized trial comparing MVAC and CISCA chemotherapy for patients with metastatic urothelial tumors. J. Clin. Oncol. 8(6), 1050-1055 (1990). (Pubitemid 20200193)
25. Stoter G, Splinter TA, Child JA et al. Combination chemotherapy with cisplatin and methotrexate in advanced transitional cell cancer of the bladder. J. Urol. 137(4), 663-667 (1987). (Pubitemid 17058674)
26. Mead GM, Russell M, Clark P et al. A randomized trial comparing methotrexate and vinblastine (MV) with cisplatin, methotrexate and vinblastine (CMV) in advanced transitional cell carcinoma: results and a report on prognostic factors in a Medical Research Council study. MRC Advanced Bladder Cancer Working Party. Br. J. Cancer 78(8), 1067-1075 (1998). (Pubitemid 28463984)
27. Harker WG, Meyers FJ, Freiha FS et al. Cisplatin, methotrexate, and vinblastine (CMV): an effective chemotherapy regimen for metastatic transitional cell carcinoma of the urinary tract. A Northern California Oncology Group study. J. Clin. Oncol. 3(11), 1463-1470 (1985). (Pubitemid 16246757)
28. Sternberg CN, de Mulder PH, Schornagel JH et al. Randomized Phase III trial of high-dose-intensity methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin (MVAC) chemotherapy and recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor versus classic MVAC in advanced urothelial tract tumors: European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Protocol no. 30924. J. Clin. Oncol. 19(10), 2638-2646 (2001). (Pubitemid 32441368)
29. Sternberg CN, de Mulder P, Schornagel JH et al. Seven year update of an EORTC Phase III trial of high-dose intensity M-VAC chemotherapy and G-CSF versus classic M-VAC in advanced urothelial tract tumours. Eur. J. Cancer 42(1), 50-54 (2006). (Pubitemid 41814532)
30. von der Maase H, Hansen SW, Roberts JT et al. Gemcitabine and cisplatin versus methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin in advanced or metastatic bladder cancer: results of a large, randomized, multinational, multicenter, Phase III study. J. Clin. Oncol. 18(17), 3068-3077 (2000).
31. von der Maase H, Sengelov L, Roberts JT et al. Long-term survival results of a randomized trial comparing gemcitabine plus cisplatin, with methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, plus cisplatin in patients with bladder cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 23(21), 4602-4608 (2005). (Pubitemid 46224062)
32. Adamo V, Magno C, Spitaleri G et al. Phase II study of gemcitabine and cisplatin in patients with advanced or metastatic bladder cancer: long-term follow-up of a 3-week regimen. Oncology 69(5), 391-398 (2005). (Pubitemid 41797915)
33. Als AB, Sengelov L, Von Der Maase H. Gemcitabine and cisplatin in locally advanced and metastatic bladder cancer; 3- or 4-week schedule? Acta Oncol. 47(1), 110-119 (2008).
34. Soto Parra H, Cavina R, Latteri F et al. Three-week versus four-week schedule of cisplatin and gemcitabine: results of a randomized Phase II study. Ann. Oncol. 13(7), 1080-1086 (2002).
35. Bamias A, Aravantinos G, Deliveliotis C et al. Docetaxel and cisplatin with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) versus MVAC with G-CSF in advanced urothelial carcinoma: a multicenter, randomized, Phase III study from the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group. J. Clin. Oncol. 22(2), 220-228 (2004). (Pubitemid 41095085)
36. deVere White RW, Lara PN Jr, Goldman B et al. A sequential treatment approach to myoinvasive urothelial cancer: a Phase II Southwest Oncology Group trial (S0219).J. Urol. 181(6), 2476-2480; discussion 2480-2471 (2009).
37. Bellmunt J, Guillem V, Paz-Ares L et al. Phase I-II study of paclitaxel, cisplatin, and gemcitabine in advanced transitional-cell carcinoma of the urothelium. Spanish Oncology Genitourinary Group. J. Clin. Oncol. 18(18), 3247-3255 (2000).
38. Bellmunt J, von der Maase H, Mead GM et al. Randomized Phase III study comparing paclitaxel/cisplatin/gemcitabine (PCG) and gemcitabine/cisplatin (GC) in patients with locally advanced (LA) or metastatic (M) urothelial cancer without prior systemic therapy; EORTC30987/ Intergroup Study. J. Clin. Oncol. 25(Suppl. 18), LBA5030 (2007).
39. Galsky MD, Hahn NM, Rosenberg J et al. A consensus definition of patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma who are unfit for cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Lancet Oncol. 12(3), 211-214 (2011).
40. Dash A, Galsky MD, Vickers AJ et al. Impact of renal impairment on eligibility for adjuvant cisplatin-based chemotherapy in patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder. Cancer 107(3), 506-513 (2006). (Pubitemid 44107210)
41. Calvert AH, Newell DR, Gumbrell LA et al. Carboplatin dosage: prospective evaluation of a simple formula based on renal function. J. Clin. Oncol. 7(11), 1748-1756 (1989). (Pubitemid 19272848)
42. Bamias A, Lainakis G, Kastritis E et al. Biweekly carboplatin/gemcitabine in patients with advanced urothelial cancer who are unfit for cisplatin-based chemotherapy: report of efficacy, quality of life and geriatric assessment. Oncology 73(5-6), 290-297 (2007). (Pubitemid 351862018)
43. Linardou H, Aravantinos G, Efstathiou E et al. Gemcitabine and carboplatin combination as first-line treatment in elderly patients and those unfit for cisplatin-based chemotherapy with advanced bladder carcinoma: Phase II study of the Hellenic Cooperative Oncology Group. Urology 64(3), 479-484 (2004). (Pubitemid 39200741)
44. Bellmunt J, de Wit R, Albanell J, Baselga J. A feasibility study of carboplatin with fixed dose of gemcitabine in 'unfit' patients with advanced bladder cancer. Eur. J. Cancer 37(17), 2212-2215 (2001). (Pubitemid 33001291)
45. Xu N, Zhang XC, Xiong JP et al. A Phase II trial of gemcitabine plus carboplatin in advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelium. BMC Cancer 7, 98 (2007).
46. De Santis M, Bellmunt J, Mead G et al. Randomized Phase II/III trial assessing gemcitabine/ carboplatin and methotrexate/carboplatin/vinblastine in patients with advanced urothelial cancer 'unfit' for cisplatin-based chemotherapy: Phase II - results of EORTC study 30986. J. Clin. Oncol. 27(33), 5634-5639 (2009).
47. Petrioli R, Frediani B, Manganelli A et al. Comparison between a cisplatin-containing regimen and a carboplatin-containing regimen for recurrent or metastatic bladder cancer patients. A randomized Phase II study. Cancer 77(2), 344-351 (1996).
48. Dreicer R, Manola J, Roth BJ et al. Phase III trial of methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin, and cisplatin versus carboplatin and paclitaxel in patients with advanced carcinoma of the urothelium. Cancer 100(8), 1639-1645 (2004). (Pubitemid 38456340)
49. Dogliotti L, Carteni G, Siena S et al. Gemcitabine plus cisplatin versus gemcitabine plus carboplatin as first-line chemotherapy in advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelium: results of a randomized Phase 2 trial. Eur. Urol. 52(1), 134-141 (2007). (Pubitemid 46803003)
50. Carles J, Esteban E, Climent M et al. Gemcitabine and oxaliplatin combination: a multicenter Phase II trial in unfit patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial cancer. Ann. Oncol. 18(8), 1359-1362 (2007). (Pubitemid 47305010)
51. Ide H, Satou A, Hoshino K et al. Successful management of metastatic urothelial carcinoma with gemcitabine and paclitaxel chemotherapy in a hemodialysis patient. Urol. Int. 87(2), 245-247 (2011).
52. Kaufman DS, Carducci MA, Kuzel TM et al. A multi-institutional Phase II trial of gemcitabine plus paclitaxel in patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial cancer. Urol. Oncol. 22(5), 393-397 (2004).
53. Albers P, Park SI, Niegisch G et al. Randomized Phase III trial of 2nd line gemcitabine and paclitaxel chemotherapy in patients with advanced bladder cancer: short-term versus prolonged treatment [German Association of Urological Oncology (AUO) trial AB 20/99]. Ann. Oncol. 22(2), 288-294 (2011).
54. Li J, Juliar B, Yiannoutsos C et al. Weekly paclitaxel and gemcitabine in advanced transitional-cell carcinoma of the urothelium: a Phase II Hoosier Oncology Group study. J. Clin. Oncol. 23(6), 1185-1191 (2005). (Pubitemid 46202275)
55. Dreicer R, Gustin DM, See WA, Williams RD. Paclitaxel in advanced urothelial carcinoma: its role in patients with renal insufficiency and as salvage therapy. J. Urol. 156(5), 1606-1608 (1996). (Pubitemid 26344001)
56. Vaughn DJ, Manola J, Dreicer R, See W, Levitt R, Wilding G. Phase II study of paclitaxel plus carboplatin in patients with advanced carcinoma of the urothelium and renal dysfunction (E2896): a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer 95(5), 1022-1027 (2002). (Pubitemid 34925352)
57. Culine S, Theodore C, De Santis M et al. A Phase II study of vinflunine in bladder cancer patients progressing after first-line platinum-containing regimen. Br. J. Cancer 94(10), 1395-1401 (2006). (Pubitemid 43772272)
58. Vaughn DJ, Srinivas S, Stadler WM et al. Vinflunine in platinum-pretreated patients with locally advanced or metastatic urothelial carcinoma: results of a large Phase 2 study. Cancer 115(18), 4110-4117 (2009).
59. Bellmunt J, Theodore C, Demkov T et al. Phase III trial of vinflunine plus best supportive care compared with best supportive care alone after a platinum-containing regimen in patients with advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelial tract. J. Clin. Oncol. 27(27), 4454-4461 (2009).
60. Han KS, Joung JY, Kim TS et al. Methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin and cisplatin combination regimen as salvage chemotherapy for patients with advanced or metastatic transitional cell carcinoma after failure of gemcitabine and cisplatin chemotherapy. Br. J. Cancer 98(1), 86-90 (2008).
61. Dreicer R, Li H, Cooney MM, Wilding G, Roth BJ. Phase 2 trial of pemetrexed disodium and gemcitabine in advanced urothelial cancer (E4802): a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer 112(12), 2671-2675 (2008). (Pubitemid 351969210)
62. Galsky MD, Mironov S, Iasonos A, Scattergood J, Boyle MG, Bajorin DF. Phase II trial of pemetrexed as second-line therapy in patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma. Invest. New Drugs 25(3), 265-270 (2007). (Pubitemid 46774696)
63. Rozzi A, Salerno M, Bordin F, De Marco F, Nicola SD, Lanzetta G. Weekly regimen of epirubicin and paclitaxel as second-line chemotherapy in patients with metastatic transitional cell carcinoma of urothelial tract: results of a Phase II study. Med. Oncol. doi:10.1007/s12032-010-9749-z (2010) (Epub ahead of print).
64. Kitamura H, Taguchi K, Kunishima Y et al. Paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and nedaplatin as second-line treatment for patients with metastatic urothelial carcinoma: a Phase II study of the SUOC group. Cancer Sci. 102(6), 1171-1175 (2011).
65. Albers P, Park SI, Niegisch G et al. Randomized Phase III trial of 2nd line gemcitabine and paclitaxel chemotherapy in patients with advanced bladder cancer: short-term versus prolonged treatment [German Association of Urological Oncology (AUO) trial AB 20/99]. Ann. Oncol. 22(2), 288-294 (2011).
66. Youssef RF, Mitra AP, Bartsch G Jr, Jones PA, Skinner DG, Cote RJ. Molecular targets and targeted therapies in bladder cancer management. World J. Urol. 27(1), 9-20 (2009).
67. Wright C, Mellon K, Johnston P et al. Expression of mutant p53, c-erbB-2 and the epidermal growth factor receptor in transitional cell carcinoma of the human urinary bladder. Br. J. Cancer 63(6), 967-970 (1991).
68. Korkolopoulou P, Christodoulou P, Kapralos P et al. The role of p53, MDM2 and c-erbB-2 oncoproteins, epidermal growth factor receptor and proliferation markers in the prognosis of urinary bladder cancer. Pathol. Res. Pract. 193(11-12), 767-775 (1997).
69. Neal DE, Marsh C, Bennett MK et al. Epidermal-growth-factor receptors in human bladder cancer: comparison of invasive and superficial tumours. Lancet 1(8425), 366-368 (1985). (Pubitemid 15163478)
70. Berger MS, Greenfield C, Gullick WJ et al. Evaluation of epidermal growth factor receptors in bladder tumours. Br. J. Cancer 56(5), 533-537 (1987). (Pubitemid 17165644)
71. Kramer C, Klasmeyer K, Bojar H, Schulz WA, Ackermann R, Grimm MO. Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor isoforms and epidermal growth factor receptor/ErbB1 expression in bladder cancer and their relation to clinical outcome. Cancer 109(10), 2016-2024 (2007). (Pubitemid 46744196)
72. Kruger S, Weitsch G, Buttner H et al. HER2 overexpression in muscle-invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder: prognostic implications. Int. J. Cancer 102(5), 514-518 (2002). (Pubitemid 35316007)
73. Gallagher DJ, Milowsky MI, Gerst SR et al. Phase II study of sunitinib in patients with metastatic urothelial cancer. J. Clin. Oncol. 28(8), 1373-1379 (2010).
74. Dreicer R, Li H, Stein M et al. Phase 2 trial of sorafenib in patients with advanced urothelial cancer: a trial of the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group. Cancer 115(18), 4090-4095 (2009).
75. Petrylak DP, Tangen CM, Van Veldhuizen PJ Jr et al. Results of the Southwest Oncology Group Phase II evaluation (study S0031) of ZD1839 for advanced transitional cell carcinoma of the urothelium. BJU Int. 105(3), 317-321 (2010).
76. Philips GK, Halabi S, Sanford BL, Bajorin D, Small EJ. A Phase II trial of cisplatin (C), gemcitabine (G) and gefitinib for advanced urothelial tract carcinoma: results of Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) 90102. Ann. Oncol. 20(6), 1074-1079 (2009).
77. Hussain MH, MacVicar GR, Petrylak DP et al. Trastuzumab, paclitaxel, carboplatin, and gemcitabine in advanced human epidermal growth factor receptor-2/ neu-positive urothelial carcinoma: results of a multicenter Phase II National Cancer Institute trial. J. Clin. Oncol. 25(16), 2218-2224 (2007). (Pubitemid 46954646)
78. Folkman J, Hochberg M. Self-regulation of growth in three dimensions. J. Exp. Med. 138(4), 745-753 (1973).
79. Klagsbrun M, D'Amore PA. Vascular endothelial growth factor and its receptors. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 7(3), 259-270 (1996). (Pubitemid 27200310)
80. Tischer E, Mitchell R, Hartman T et al. The human gene for vascular endothelial growth factor. Multiple protein forms are encoded through alternative exon splicing. J. Biol. Chem. 266(18), 11947-11954 (1991).
81. Bernardini S, Fauconnet S, Chabannes E, Henry PC, Adessi G, Bittard H. Serum levels of vascular endothelial growth factor as a prognostic factor in bladder cancer. J. Urol. 166(4), 1275-1279 (2001). (Pubitemid 32862155)
82. Twardowski P, Stadler WM, Frankel P et al. Phase II study of Aflibercept (VEGF-Trap) in patients with recurrent or metastatic urothelial cancer, a California Cancer Consortium Trial. Urology 76(4), 923-926 (2010).
83. Hahn NM, Stadler WM, Zon RT et al. Phase II trial of cisplatin, gemcitabine, and bevacizumab as first-line therapy for metastatic urothelial carcinoma: Hoosier Oncology Group GU 04-75. J. Clin. Oncol. 29(12), 1525-1530 (2011).
84. Rundle JS, Hart AJ, McGeorge A, Smith JS, Malcolm AJ, Smith PM. Squamous cell carcinoma of bladder. A review of 114 patients. Br J. Urol. 54(5), 522-526 (1982). (Pubitemid 13204329)
85. Serretta V, Pomara G, Piazza F, Gange E. Pure squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder in western countries. Report on 19 consecutive cases. Eur. Urol. 37(1), 85-89 (2000). (Pubitemid 30072380)
86. Khaled HM, Hamza MR, Mansour O, Gaafar R, Zaghloul MS. A Phase II study of gemcitabine plus cisplatin chemotherapy in advanced bilharzial bladder carcinoma. Eur. J. Cancer 36(Suppl. 2), 34-37 (2000).
87. Khaled H, Emara ME, Gaafar RM et al. Primary chemotherapy with low-dose prolonged infusion gemcitabine and cisplatin in patients with bladder cancer: a Phase II trial. Urol. Oncol. 26(2), 133-136 (2008). (Pubitemid 351288557)
88. Wright JL, Porter MP, Li CI, Lange PH, Lin DW. Differences in survival among patients with urachal and nonurachal adenocarcinomas of the bladder. Cancer 107(4), 721-728 (2006). (Pubitemid 44232664)
89. Kastritis E, Dimopoulos MA, Antoniou N et al. The outcome of patients with advanced pure squamous or mixed squamous and transitional urothelial carcinomas following platinum-based chemotherapy. Anticancer Res. 26(5B), 3865-3869 (2006). (Pubitemid 44701473)
90. Cheng L, Pan CX, Yang XJ et al. Small cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder: a clinicopathologic analysis of 64 patients. Cancer 101(5), 957-962 (2004). (Pubitemid 39100428)
91. Pan CX, Zhang H, Lara PN Jr, Cheng L. Small-cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder: diagnosis and management. Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 6(12), 1707-1713 (2006). (Pubitemid 46062305)
92. Abrahams NA, Moran C, Reyes AO, Siefker-Radtke A, Ayala AG. Small cell carcinoma of the bladder: a contemporary clinicopathological study of 51 cases. Histopathology 46(1), 57-63 (2005). (Pubitemid 40193699)
93. Bellmunt J, Paz-Ares L, Cuello M et al. Gene expression of ERCC1 as a novel prognostic marker in advanced bladder cancer patients receiving cisplatin-based chemotherapy. Ann. Oncol. 18(3), 522-528 (2007). (Pubitemid 46359633)
94. Vinall RL, Zripoll A, Wang S, Pan CX, Devere White RW. MiR-34a chemo-sensitizes bladder cancer cells to cisplatin treatment regardless of P53-Rb pathway status. Int. J. Cancer doi:10.1002/ijc.26256 (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
95. Henderson PT, Pan CX. Human microdosing for the prediction of patient response. Bioanalysis 2(3), 373-376 (2010).
96. Henderson PT, Li T, He M et al. A microdosing approach for characterizing formation and repair of carboplatin-DNA monoadducts and chemoresistance. Int. J. Cancer 129(6), 1425-1434 (2011).
97. Pan CX, Zhu W, Cheng L. Implications of cancer stem cells in the treatment of cancer. Future Oncol. 2(6), 723-731 (2006). (Pubitemid 44941990)
98. Chan KS, Espinosa I, Chao M et al. Identification, molecular characterization, clinical prognosis, and therapeutic targeting of human bladder tumor-initiating cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 106(33), 14016-14021 (2009).
99. Rink M, Chun FK, Minner S et al. Detection of circulating tumour cells in peripheral blood of patients with advanced non-metastatic bladder cancer. BJU Int. 107(10), 1668-1675 (2011).
100. Zhang H, Aina OH, Lam KS et al. Identification of a bladder cancer-specific ligand using a combinatorial chemistry approach. Urol. Oncol. doi:10.1016/j. urolonc.2010.06.011 (2011) (Epub ahead of print).
101. Lin TY, Zhang H, Wang S et al. Targeting canine bladder transitional cell carcinoma with a human bladder cancer-specific ligand. Mol. Cancer 10(1), 9 (2011).