Making up koro: Multiplicity, psychiatry, culture, and penis-shrinking anxieties

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 67, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 36-70

  Crozier, Ivan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

African psychiatry; colonial psychiatry; culture bound syndromes; Koro; penis; transcultural psychiatry

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EPIDEMIC; ETHNOLOGY; HISTORY; HUMAN; KORO; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGY; REVIEW;

AFRICA; ANTHROPOLOGY, CULTURAL; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; ETHNOPSYCHOLOGY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; KORO; MALE;

EID: 82055165543     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: 14684373     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/jrr008     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. For female cases, see Arabinda Chowdhury, "Koro in Females," Transcult. Psychiatry, 1994, 31, 369-73.
2. See F. Oyebode et al., "Koro-A Psychophysiological Dysfunction?," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1986, 148, 212-14.
3. Annemarie Mol, The Body Multiple: Ontology in Medical Practice (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2002).
4. Lisa Downing, "The Measure of Sexual Dysfunction: A Plea for Theoretical Limitlessness," in Transformations: Region, Culture, Society, Special Issue on Regions of Sexuality, ed. Iain Morland and Wendy O'Brien, 2004, 8, available at: http://transformations.cqu.edu.au/journal/issue-08/article-02. shtml#return2 (accessed July 2008).
5. Raymond Prince, "Koro and the Fox Spirit on Hainan Island (China)," Transcult. Psychiatry, 1992, 29, 119-32.
6. James Edwards, "Indigenous Koro, a Genital Retraction Syndrome of Insular Southeast Asia: A Critical Review," Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 1984, 8, 1-24.
7. W. P. M. van Wulfften-Palthe, "Koro, een Eigenaardige Angstneurose," Geneeskundig Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indie, 1934, 74, 1713-20.
8. For more, see Frances Gouda, "Primitivity, Animism and Psychoanalysis: European Visions of the Native 'Soul' in the Dutch East Indies, 1900-1949," in The Transnational Unconscious: Essays in Psychoanalysis and Transnationalism, ed. Joy Damousi and Mariano Plotkin (New York: Palgrave, 2009), 73-96.
9. P. M. Yap, "Mental Disorders Peculiar to Certain Cultures: A Survey of Comparative Psychiatry," J. Ment. Sci., 1951, 97, 313-27.
10. D. N. Nandi et al., "Epidemic Koro in West Bengal, India," Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry, 1983, 29, 265-68; (Pubitemid 14233471)
11. D. Dutta, "Koro Epidemic in Assam," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1983, 143, 309-10;
12. W. G. Jilek and L. Jilek-Aall, "A Koro Epidemic in Thailand," Transcult. Psychiatry, 1977, 14, 57-59;
13. W. S. Tseng et al., "A Sociocultural Study of Koro Epidemics in Guangdong, China," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1988, 145, 1538-43;
14. W. S. Tseng et al., "Koro Epidemics in Guangdong, China. A Questionnaire Survey," J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 1992, 80, 117-23;
15. "Panic in Khartoum: Foreigners Shake Hands, Make Penises Disappear," Middle East Media Research Institute, 22 October 2003, available at: http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area= sd&ID=SP59303 (accessed 28 January 2009);
16. Glenn Adams and Vivian Dzokoto, "Genital-Shrinking Panic in Ghana: A Cultural Psychological Analysis," Cult. Psychology, 2007, 13, 83-104;
17. Charles Mather, "Accusations of Genital Theft: A Case from Northern Ghana," Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 2005, 29, 33-53;
18. Brigid Sackey, "The Vanishing Sexual Organ Phenomenon in the Context of Ghanaian Religious Beliefs," Afr. Anthropol., 1997, 4, 110-25.
19. Ian Hacking, "Making Up People," in Reconstructing Individualism: Autonomy, Individuality, and the Self in Western Thought, ed. Marc Weller et al. (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 1986).
20. Charles Rosenberg, "What Is Disease? In Memory of Owsei Temkin," Bull. Hist. Med., 2003, 77, 491-505;
21. Anne Kveim Lie, "Stories of Origin and the Norwegian Radesyge," Soc. Hist. Med., 2007, 20, 563-79.
22. Arthur Kleinman, "Depression, Somatization and the New Cross-Cultural Psychiatry," Soc. Sci. Med., 1977, 11, 3-10;
23. Arthur Kleinman, Patients and Healers in the Context of Culture: An Exploration of the Borderland between Anthropology, Medicine, and Psychiatry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980);
24. Arthur Kleinman, Rethinking Psychiatry: From Cultural Category to Personal Experience (New York: Free Press, 1988);
25. Arthur Kleinman, "Triumph or Pyrrhic Victory? The Inclusion of Culture in DSM-IV," Harv. Rev. Psychiatry, 1997, 4, 343-44.
26. Michel Foucault, Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1972).
27. Martin Kusch, Knowledge by Agreement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998);
28. Barry Barnes, T.S. Kuhn and Social Science (London: MacMillan, 1982).
29. Hacking, "Making Up People."
30. Ian Hacking, "Kinds of People: Moving Targets," British Academy Lecture, 2006, available at: http://www.britac.ac.uk:80/pubs/src/britacad06/ index.cfm (accessed 10 January 2011).
31. Hacking, "Kinds of People,"
32. see also Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: Multiple Personality and the Sciences of Memory (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995);
33. Ian Hacking, Mad Travelers: Reflections on the Reality of Transient Mental Illness (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988).
34. W. Gilmore Ellis, "The Amok of the Malays," J. Ment. Sci., 1893, 39, 325-38;
35. Robert Winzeler, Latah in Southeast Asia: The History and Ethnography of a Culture-Bound Syndrome (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
36. J. C. Blonk, "Koro," Geneeskd Tijdschr Ned-Indie, 1895, 35, 562-63, 562.
37. P. C. J. van Brero, "Naar Aanleiding van het Opstel over Koro van den Heer J. C. Blonk in de Vorige Aflevering van dit Tijdschrift," Geneeskd Tijdschr Ned-Indie, 1896, 36, 48-54;
38. see also P. C. J. van Brero, "Koro, Eine Eigenthumliche Zwangsvorstellung," Allg. Z. Psychiatrie Med., 1896, 53, 569-7.
39. See especially Carl Westphal, Die Agoraphobie, trans. Michael T. Schumacher (Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1988).
40. Hans Pols, "The Development of Psychiatry in Indonesia: From Colonial to Modern Times," Int. Rev. Psychiatry, 2006, 18, 363-70. (Pubitemid 44369594)
41. Eric Engstrom, "Introduction to and Translation of Emil Kraepelin (1908), On the Question of Degeneration," Hist. Psychiatry, 2007, 18, 389-98;
42. Emil Kraepelin, "On the Question of Degeneration (1908)," Hist. Psychiatry, 2007, 18, 389-98;
43. August Forel, The Sexual Question, trans. C. F. Marshall (New York: Rebmann, 1909).
44. Wolfgang G. Jilek, "Emil Kraepelin and Comparative Sociocultural psychiatry," Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci., 1995, 245, 231-38;
45. Pols, "Development of Psychiatry in Indonesia";
46. Hans Pols, "The Nature of the Native Mind: Contested Views of Dutch Colonial Psychiatrists in the Former Dutch East Indies," in Psychiatry and Empire, ed. Sloan Malone and Megan Vaughan (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007).
47. Emil Kraepelin, "Vergleichende Psychiatrie," Zentralbl. Nervenhei. Psychiatrie, 1904, 27, 433-37;
48. Emil Kraepelin, "Psychiatrisches aus Java," Zentralbl. Nervenhei. Psychiatrie, 1904, 27, 468-69.
49. Emil Kraepelin, Psychiatrie-Ein Lehrbuch fuer Studierende und Aerzte, 3 vols., 8th ed. (Barth, Leipzig, 1909), 157.
50. Kraepelin, "Psychiatrisches aus Java."
51. Jilek, "Kraepelin and Comparative Sociocultural Psychiatry," 233.
52. Roland Littlewood and Maurice Lipsedge, Aliens and Alienists: Ethnic Minorities and Psychiatry (London: Routledge, 1982).
53. Sigmund Freud, Totem and Taboo: Resemblances between the Mental Lives of Savages and Neurotics, trans. J. Strackey (London: Routledge, 1999 [1913]).
54. Adam Kuper, "Psychology and Ethnology: The British Experience," Hist. Human Sci., 1990, 3, 397-414.
55. See also Bronislaw Malinowski, Sex and Repression in Savage Society (London: Routledge, 2001 [1929]).
56. According to Michel Foucault: "since [Freud's] Totem and Taboo, the establishment of a common field for these two [psychoanalysis and ethnology], the possibility of a discourse that could move from one to the other without discontinuity, the double articulation of the history of individuals upon the unconscious of culture, and the historicity of those cultures upon the unconscious of individuals, has opened up, without doubt, the most general problems that can be posed with regard to man." Michel Foucault, The Order of Things, trans. A. Sheridan (New York: Vintage, 1970), 379.
57. It is significant that some of the first western descriptions of male genital piercings-particularly the ampallang-are associated with Malay indigenes. See Havelock Ellis, Love and Pain (Philadelphia: F.A. Davis & Co., 1903), chapter 1.
58. P. M. van Wulfften-Palthe, "Koro," in A Clinical Text-Book of Tropical Medicine, ed. C. D. Delangen and A. Lichtenstein, trans. A. H. Hamilton from 3rd Dutch ed. (Amsterdam: G. Kolff & Company, 1936), 535.
59. See also P. M. van Wulfften-Palthe, "Koro, eine Merkwurdige Angsthysterie," Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse, 1936, 21, 249-25.
60. J. A. Slot, "Koro in Zuid-Celebes," Geneesk Tijdschr. Ned-Indie, 1935, 75, 811-20, 820.
61. Fritz Kobler, "Description of an Acute Castration Fear Based on Superstition," Psychoanal. Rev., 1948, 35, 285-89, 285.
62. Alf Gerlach, "Castration Anxiety and Oral Envy in Sexual Relations. Analytic Studies with Ethnological Observations," Psyche, 1995, 49, 965-88.
63. Centre Georges Devereux, http://www.ethnopsychiatrie.net (accessed 4 February 2009).
64. Chong Tung Mon, "Letter (9 March 1968)," Br. Med. J., 1, 640-41.
65. R. E. Bartholomew, "The Social Psychology of 'Epidemic' Koro," Int. J. Soc. Psychiatry, 1994, 40, 46-60. (Pubitemid 24093848)
66. W. S. Tseng et al., "A Sociocultural Study of Koro Epidemics in Guangdong, China";
67. W. S. Tseng et al., "Koro Epidemics in Guangdong, China. A Questionnaire Survey."
68. Other epidemics are discussed in: D. N. Nandi et al., "Epidemic Koro in West Bengal, India";
69. D. Dutta, "Koro Epidemic in Assam";
70. W. G. Jilek and L Jilek-Aall, "A Koro Epidemic in Thailand."
71. Arabinda Chowdhury, "Ethnomedical Concept [sic] of Heat and Cold in Koro: Study from Indian patients," World Cult. Psychiatr. Res. Rev., 2008, 3, 146-58.
72. This interpretation is based on the Strong Program in the Sociology of Scientific Knowledge, and in particular on the ideas of concept application and finitism. For more, see David Bloor, Wittgenstein: A Social Theory of Knowledge (London: MacMillan, 1983), and Barry Barnes, T. S. Kuhn.
73. Chowdhury, "Ethnomedical Concept [sic] of Heat and Cold in Koro."
74. Edwards, "Indigenous Koro";
75. Chris Buckle et al., "A Conceptual History of Koro," Transcult. Psychiatry, 2007, 44, 27-43. (Pubitemid 46455323)
76. German Berrios and Stephen Morley, "Koro-Like Symptoms in a non-Chinese Subject," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1984, 145, 331-34.
77. P. M. Yap, "Koro in a Briton," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1965, 111, 774-75.
78. J. G. Edwards, "Koro Pattern of Depersonalization in an American Schizophrenic Patient," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1970, 126, 1171;
79. Y. D. Lapierre, "Koro in a French Canadian," Can. Psychiatr. Assoc. J., 1972, 17, 333-34.
80. Ken Barrett, "Koro in a Londoner," Lancet, 1978, 312, 1319.
81. Anne Cremona, "Another Case of Koro in a Briton," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1981, 138, 180-81.
82. P. M. Yap, "Koro-A Culture-Bound Depersonalization Syndrome," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1965, 111, 43-50;
83. Edwards, "Koro Pattern of Depersonalization."
84. Berrios and Morley, "Koro-Like Symptoms."
85. Gregory T. Smith, N. S. Spillane, and A. M. Annus, "Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies," Perspect. Psychol. Sci., 2006, 1, 211-33, 222.
86. R. N. Bloor, "Whizz-Dick: Side Effect, Urban Myth or Amphetamine-Related Koro-Like Syndrome?," Int. J. Clin. Pract., 2004, 58, 717-19; (Pubitemid 39144588)
87. T. W. Dow and D. A. Silver, "Drug-Induced Koro Syndrome," J. Fla. Med. Assoc., 1973, 60, 32.
88. M. Earleywine, "Cannabis-Induced Koro in Americans," Addiction, 2001, 96, 1663-66;
89. C. K. Kalaitzi and A. Kalantzis, "Cannabis-Induced Koro-Like Syndrome. A Case Report and Mini Review," Urol. Int., 2006, 76, 278-80.
90. Eric Chen, "Drug-Induced Koro in a Chinese Man," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 158, 721.
91. Rejon Altable and Rodriguez Urrutia, "A Koro-Misidentification Syndrome in Schizophrenia? A Plea for Clinical Psychopathology," Psychopathology, 2004, 37, 249-52.
92. See Angus McLaren's Impotence (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007) for a detailed discussion of Western attitudes to impotence. I am aware of the differences between shrinkage anxiety and other anxieties such as over impotence or small penis size, but similarities still exist.
93. See, for example, catalogue of pills and potions, http://www.shytobuy.co. uk/penis-enlargement.html, courtesy of some email spam (accessed 25 December 2009).
94. J. M. Calvet et al., "Penis Enlargement: Ventral and Dorsal Combined Technique," 2nd Ibero-American Conference of Andrology, 2003: http://www.andromedical.com/pdf/16-penis-enlargement-ventral-and-dorsal.pdf (accessed 29 January 2009).
95. O. Ifabumuyi and G. G. C. Rwegellera, "Koro in a Nigerian Male: A Case Report," Afr. J. Psychiatry, 1979, 5, 103-5.
96. A. Anumonye and H. Adaranijo, "Chronic Non-Specific Urethritis as Psychological Reaction among Nigerian Neurotic Patients," Nigerian Med. J., 1978, 8, 3.
97. Ifabumuyi and Rwegellera, "Koro on a Nigerian Male."
98. Anonymous, "Woman Escapes Lynching over Alleged Mans [sic] Penis Theft," Daily Trust, 6 August 2002, available at: http://allafrica.com/ stories/200208060545.html (accessed 17 January 2011).
99. Jean-Jacques Mandel, "Les Rétrécisseurs de sexe. Chronique d'une rumeur sorciè re," Cah. Etud. Afr., 2008, 189, 185-208.
100. Mather, "Accusations," 33.
101. M. T. Walsh, "The Politicisation of Popobawa: Changing Explanations of a Collective Panic in Zanzibar," Humanit. J. (Tanzania), 2009, 1, 22-33.
102. Adams and Dzokoto, "Genital-Shrinking Panic in Ghana."
103. Edwards, "Indigenous Koro";
104. Buckle et al., "Conceptual History."
105. Joe Bavier, "Penis Theft Panic Hits African City," New York Post, 23 April 2008, available at: http://www.nypost.com/seven/04232008/news/ worldnews/penis-theft-panic-hits-african-city-107774.htm (accessed 29 January 2009).
106. Lisa Bortolotti, "Delusions and the Background of Rationality," Mind Language, 2005, 20, 189-208;
107. German Berrios, "Delusions as 'Wrong Beliefs': A Conceptual History," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 159, Suppl. 14, 6-13.
108. Brigid Sackey, "The Vanishing Sexual Organ Phenomenon in the Context of Ghanaian Religious Beliefs," Afr. Anthropol., 1997, 4, 110-25.
109. Adams and Dzokoto, "Genital-Shrinking Panic in Ghana," 83.
110. Sackey, "Vanishing Sexual Organ."
111. Jock McCulloch, Colonial Psychiatry
112. "The African Mind" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995);
113. Jonathan Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997);
114. Richard Keller, Colonial Maness: Psychiatry in French North Africa (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007);
115. Sloan Mahone, "The Psychology of Rebellion: Colonial Medical Responses to Dissent in British East Africa," J. Afr. Hist., 2006, 47, 241-58; (Pubitemid 44082344)
116. Sloan Mahone and Megan Vaughan, Psychiatry and Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007). Psychiatry in other colonies also contributed to the emergence of transcultural psychiatry.
117. See Margaret J. Field, Religion and Medicine of the Ga People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937);
118. Margaret Field, "Mental Disorder in Rural Ghana," J. Ment. Sci., 1958, 104, 1043-51;
119. Margaret Field, Search for Security: An Ethno-Psychiatric Study of Rural Ghana (London: Faber and Faber, 1960);
120. Margaret J. Field, "Chronic Psychosis in Rural Ghana," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1968, 114, 31-33.
121. See in addition to Field's writings Jock McCulloch, Colonial Psychiatry, 112-13;
122. S. Kirson Weinberg, "'Mental Healing' and Social Change in West Africa," Social Problems, 1964, 11, 257-69.
123. Raymond Prince, "The 'Brain Fag' Syndrome in Nigerian Students," J. Ment. Sci., 1960, 106, 559-70;
124. Raymond Prince, "The Yoruba Image of the Witch," J. Ment. Sci., 1961, 107, 795-805;
125. Raymond Prince, "The Changing Picture of Depressive Syndromes in Africa: Is It Fact or Diagnostic Fashion?" Can. J. Afr. Stud., 1967, 1, 177-92.
126. T. Adeoye Lambo, "The Role of Cultural Factors in Paranoid Psychosis among the Yoruba Tribe," J. Ment. Sci., 1955, 101, 239-66.
127. Alexander Leighton et al., Psychiatric Disorder amongst the Yoruba (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963).
128. For details, see: http://www.mcgill.ca/tcpsych/history/ (accessed June 2009).
129. Yap, "Mental Disorders Peculiar to Certain Cultures," 326.
130. Ari Kiev, Transcultural Psychiatry (New York: Basic Books, 1972).
131. Kraepelin, "Vergleichende Psychiatrie";
132. Kraepelin "Psychiatrisches aus Java."
133. Yap, "Mental Disorders Peculiar to Certain Cultures."
134. Yap, "Koro-A Culture-Bound Depersonalization Syndrome," 41.
135. See Laurence J. Kirmayer and Allan Young, "Culture and Somatization: Clinical, Epidemiological, and Ethnographic Perspectives," Psychosom. Med., 1998, 60, 420-30. (Pubitemid 28354842)
136. A. L. Gwee, "Koro: Its Origin and Nature as a Disease Entity," Singapore Med. J., 1968, 9, 3-6;
137. Mon, "Letter."
138. See Herb Kutchins and Stuart A. Kirk, Making Us Crazy. DSM: The Psychiatric Bible and the Creation of Mental Disorders (London: The Free Press, 1997).
139. R. C. Simons and C. C. Hughes, eds., The Culture-Bound Syndromes: Folk Illnesses of Psychiatric and Anthropological Interest (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1985), 10.
140. J. Hoenig, "The Concept of Schizophrenia. Kraepelin-Bleuler- Schneider," Br. J. Psychiatry, 1983, 142, 547-56.
141. Simons and Hughes, The Culture-Bound Syndromes; for further discussion of this work
142. see Michael Kenny, "Review of Simons and Hughes (1985)," Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 1985, 12, 513-24.
143. R. C. Simons, "Mechanism and Classification of Koro," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 959
144. citing Simons, "Introduction: The Genital Retraction Taxon,"
145. Simons and Hughes, The Culture-Bound Syndromes.
146. R. L. Bernstein and A. C. Gaw, "Koro: Proposed Classification for DSM-IV," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1990, 147, 1670-74.
147. Oyebode et al., "Koro-A Psychophysiological Dysfunction?"
148. Bernstein and Gaw, "Koro."
149. for the implication of this use of paradigm, see Barnes, T. S. Kuhn.
150. Bernstein and Gaw, "Koro," 1673.
151. Alan Lipschitz, "Mechanism and Classification of Koro," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 959.
152. Dan Stein et al., "Classification of Koro," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1279-80.
153. R. L. Bernstein and A. C. Gaw, "Mechanism and Classification of Koro," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 959-60, 960;
154. R. L. Bernstein and A. C. Gaw, "Classification of Koro," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1279-80.
155. B. Kennedy and G. Flick, "Classification of Koro," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1278-79;
156. J. L. Fabian, "Koro: Classification and Case Reports," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1766;
157. R. Chadda and S. Shome, "Koro: Classification and Case Reports," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1766-67.
158. D. Fishbain, "Koro: Classification and Case Reports," Am. J. Psychiatry, 1991, 148, 1765-66.
159. See especially Kleinman, "Depression, Somatization";
160. Kleinman, Patients and Healers;
161. Kleinman, Rethinking Psychiatry;
162. Kleinman, "Triumph or Pyrrhic Victory?"
163. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 1994), 84.
164. Dinesh Bhugra and Raymond Cochrane, Psychiatry in Multicultural Britain (London: Gaskell, 1999);
165. Kamaldeep Bhui and Dinesh Bhugra, Cross-Cultural Psychiatry: A Practical Guide (London: Arnold, 2000);
166. Littlewood and Lipsedge, Aliens and Alienists.
167. See Mashall Sahlins, Culture in Practice (New York: Zone Books, 2000).
168. Barnes, T. S. Kuhn, 28.
169. Warwick Anderson, "From Subjugated Knowledge to Conjugated Subjects: Science and Globalisation, or Postcolonial Studies of Science?," Postcolonial Studies 2009, 12, 389-400;
170. Warwick Anderson, The Collectors of Lost Souls: Turning Kuru Scientists into Whitemen (Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
171. Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton, eds., Bodies in Contact: Rethinking Colonial Encounters in World History (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2005).
172. Smith et al., "Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies."