Locomotor diversification in New World monkeys: Running, climbing, or clawing along evolutionary branches

Anatomical Record

Volumn 294, Issue 12, 2011, Pages 1991-2012

  Youlatos, Dionisios ^a   Meldrum, Jeff ^b  

^a ARISTOTLE UNIVERSITY OF THESSALONIKI   (Greece)

^b Nucl Eng Idaho State University   (United States)

Author keywords

Evolution; Fossils; Locomotion; Platyrrhines; Talus

Indexed keywords

ALOUATTA; ANTILLOTHRIX; AOTUS; ATELIDAE; BEHAVIOR; BIODIVERSITY; BRANISELLA; CAIPORA; CALLITRICHINAE; CARLOCEBUS; CEBIDAE; CEBUPITHECIA; CLIMBING; DOLICHOCEBUS; EVOLUTION; EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION; EXTANT PITHECIINAE; FOSSIL ANIMAL; HOMUNCUCLUS; LAVENTIANA; LOCOMOTION; MIOCENE; MORPHOLOGY; NEOSAIMIRI; NONHUMAN; NUCIRUPTOR; OLIGOCENE; PALEONTOLOGY; PARALOUATTA; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PLATYRRHINI; PLEISTOCENE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEROPITHECIA; PROTOPITHECUS; REVIEW; RUNNING; SIMIAN; SORIACEBUS; SZALATAVUS; TALUS; XENOTHRIX;

ANIMALS; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; HOOF AND CLAW; MOTOR ACTIVITY; PLATYRRHINI; RUNNING;

CERCOPITHECIDAE; PLATYRRHINI;

EID: 81255207548     PISSN: 19328486     EISSN: 19328494     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ar.21508     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Anapol F, Fleagle JG. 1988. Fossil platyrrhine forelimb bones from the early Miocene of Argentina. Am J Phys Anthropol 76: 417-428.
2. Bauer K, Schreiber A. 1997. Double invasion of Tertiary island South America by ancestral New World monkeys. Biol J Linn Soc 20: 1-29.
3. Bezanson M. 2009. Life history and locomotion in Cebus capucinus and Alouatta palliata. Am J Phys Anthropol 140: 508-517.
4. Bicca-Marques JC, Calegaro-Marques C. 1995. Locomotion of black howlers in a habitat with discontinuous canopy. Folia primatol 64: 55-61.
5. Bluntschli H. 1913. Die fossilen affen patagonies und der ursprung der platyrrhinen affen. Anat Anzeig 44: 33-43.
6. Bluntschli H. 1931. Homunculus patagonicus und die ihm zugereihten fossilfunde aus den Santa-Cruz-Schichten patagoniens: eine morphologisce revision an hand der originalstucke in der sammlung Ameghino zu La Plata. Genen Morphol Jahr 67: 811-892.
7. Boinski S. 1989. The positional behavior and substrate use in the squirrel monkeys: ecological implications. J Hum Evol 18: 659-677.
8. Bown TM, Larriestra CN. 1990. Sedimentary paleoenvironments of fossil platyrrhine localities, Miocene Pinturas Formation, Santa Cruz Province, Argentina. J Hum Evol 19: 87-119.
9. Cant JGH. 1986. Locomotion and feeding postures of spider and howling monkeys: field study and evolutionary interpretation. Folia primatol 46: l-14.
10. Cant JGH, Youlatos D, Rose MD. 2001. Locomotor behavior of Lagothrix lagothricha and Ateles belzebuth in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador: general patterns and nonsuspensory modes. J Hum Evol 41: 141-166.
11. Cant JGH, Youlatos D, Rose MD. 2003. Suspensory locomotion of Lagothrix lagothricha and Ateles belzebuth in Yasuni National Park, Ecuador. J Hum Evol 44: 685-699.
12. Cartelle C, Hartwig WC. 1996. A new extinct primate among the Pleistocene megafauna of Bahia, Brazil. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93: 6405-6409.
13. Ciochon RL, Chiarelli AB. 1980. Evolutionary biology of the New World monkeys and continental drift. New York: Plenum.
14. Ciochon RL, Corruccini RS. 1975. Morphometric analysis of platyrrhine femora with taxonomic implications and notes on two fossil forms. J Hum Evol 4: 193-217.
15. Collins AC. 2004. Atelinae phylogenetic relationships: the trichotomy revived? Am J Phys Anthropol 124: 285-296.
16. Cooke SB, Rosenberger AL, Turvey S. 2011. An extinct monkey from Haiti and the origins of Greater Antillean primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108: 2699-2704.
17. Dagosto M. 1988. Implications of postcranial evidence for the origin of Euprimates. J Hum Evol 17: 35-56.
18. Davis LC. 2002. Functional morphology of the forelimb and long bones in the Callitrichidae (Platyrrhini, Primates). PhD Dissertation. Carbondale, Southern Illinois University.
19. Davis LC. 1987. Morphological evidences of the positional behaviour in the hindlimb of Cebupithecia sarmientoi (Primates: Platyrrhini). MA Thesis, Arizona State University.
20. Defler TR. 1999. Locomotion and posture in Lagothrix lagotricha. Folia primatol 70: 313-327.
21. Erikson GE. 1963. Brachiation in the new World monkeys and anthropoid apes. Symp Zool Soc Lond 10: 135-164.
22. Fleagle JG. 1999. Primate adaptation and evolution. 2nd ed. San Diego: Academic Press.
23. Fleagle JG, Meldrum DJ. 1988. Locomotor behavior and skeletal morphology of two sympatric pitheciine monkeys, Pithecia pithecia and Chiropotes satanas. Am J Primatol 16: 227-249.
24. Fleagle JG, Mittermeier RA. 1980. Locomotor behavior and comparative ecology of seven Surinam monkeys. Am J Phys Anthropol 52: 301-314.
25. Fleagle JG, Reed KE. 1996. Comparing primate communities: a multivariate approach. J Hum Evol 30: 489-510.
26. Fleagle JG, Reed KE. 1999. Phylogenetic and temporal perspectives on primate ecology. In: Fleagle JG, Janson C, Reed KE, editors. Primate communities. New York: Cambridge University Press. p 92-115.
27. Fleagle JG, Tejedor MF. 2002. Early platyrrhines of southern South America. In: Hartwig WC, editor. The primate fossil record. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 161-173.
28. Fontaine R. 1990. Positional behavior in Saimiri boliviensis and Ateles geoffroyi. Am J Phys Anthropol 82: 485-508.
29. Ford SM. 1980. Callitrichids as phyletic dwarfs, and the place of the Callitrichidae in Platyrrhini. Primates 21: 31-43.
30. Ford SM. 1988. Postcranial adaptations of the earliest platyrrhine. J Hum Evol 17: 155-192.
31. Ford SM. 1990a. Locomotor adaptations of fossil platyrrhines. J Hum Evol 19: 141-173.
32. Ford SM. 1990b. Platyrrhine evolution in the West Indies. J Hum Evol 19: 237-254.
33. Ford SM, Davis LC. 1992. Systematics and body size: implications for feeding adaptations in New World monkeys. Am J Phys ANthropol 88: 415-468.
34. Ford SM, Davis LC. 2009. Marmoset postcrania and the skeleton of the dwarf marmoset, Callibella humilis. In: Ford SM, Porter LM, Davis LC, editors. The smallest anthropoids: the marmoset/callimico radiation. New York: Springer Verlag. p 411-448.
35. Ford SM, Porter LM, Davis LC. 2009. The smallest anthropoids: the marmoset/callimico radiation. New York: Springer Verlag.
36. Garber PA. 1980. Locomotor behavior and feeding ecology of the Panamanian tamarin (Saguinus oedipus geoffroyi, Callitrichidae, Primates). Int J Primatol 1: 185-201.
37. Garber PA. 1991. A comparative study of positional behavior in three species of tamarind monkeys. Primates 32: 219-230.
38. Garber PA. 1992. Vertical clinging, small body size, and the evolution of feeding adaptations in the Callitrichinae. Am J Phys Anthropol 88: 469-482.
39. Garber PA. 2007. Primate locomotor behavior and ecology. In: Campbell C, Fuentes A, MacKinnon KC, Panger M, Bearder S, editors. Primates in perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p 543-560.
40. Garber PA, Leigh SR. 2001. Patterns of positional behavior in mixed-species troops of Callimico goeldii, Saguinus labiatus, and Saguinus fuscicollis in northwestern Brazil. Am J Primatol 54: 17-31.
41. Garber PA, Blomquist GE, Anzenberger G. 2005. Kinematic analysis of trunk-to-trunk leaping in Callimico goeldii. Int J Primatol 26: 223-240.
42. Garber PA, Rosenberger AL, Norconk MA. 1996. Marmoset misconceptions. In: Norconk MA, Rosenberger AL, Garber PA, editors. Adaptive radiations of neotropical primates. New York: Plenum Press. p 87-95.
43. Garber PA, Sallenave A, Blomquist GE, Anzenberger G. 2009. A comparative study of the kinematics of trunk-to-trunk leaping in Callimico goeldi, Callitrhix jacchus, and Cebuella pygmaea. In: Ford SM, Porter LM, Davis LC, editors. The smallest anthropoids: the marmoset/callimico radiation. New York: Springer Verlag. p 259-278.
44. Garber PA, Preutz D. 1995. The positional behavior of moustached tamarin monkeys: effects of habitat on locomotor variability and locomotor stability. J Hum Evol 28: 411-426.
45. Garber PA. Rehg JA. 1999. The ecological role of the prehensile tail in white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus). Am J Phys Anthropol 110: 325-339.
46. Gebo DL. 1992. Locomotor and postural behavior in Alouatta palliata and Cebus capucinus. Am J Primatol 26: 277-290.
47. Gebo DL, Dagosto M. 2004. Anthropoid origins: postcranial evidence from the Eocene of Asia. In: Ross CF, Kay RF, editors. Anthropoid Origins: New Visions. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. p 369-380.
48. Gebo DL, Dagosto M, Rosenberger AL, Setoguchi T. 1990. New platyrrhine tali from La Venta, Colombia. J Hum Evol 19: 737-746.
49. Gebo DL, Simons EL. 1987. Morphology and locomotor adaptations of the foot of early Oligocene anthropoids, Am J Phys Anthropol 74: 83-101.
50. Guillot D. 2009. Measures of postural and locomotor performance in wild atelid primates: a comparative analysis of Alouatta seniculus, Lagothrix poeppigii, and Ateles belzebuth. Ph.D. Dissertation, Boston University.
51. Harada ML, Schneider H, Schneider MPC, Sampaio I, Czelusniak J, Goodman M. 1995. DNA evidence on the phylogenetic systematics of New World monkeys: support for the sistergrouping of Cebus and Saimiri from two unlinked nuclear genes. Mol Phylogenet Evol 4: 331-349.
52. Hartwig W, Meldrum DJ. 2002. Miocene platyrrhines of the northern Neotropics. In: Hartwig WC, editor. The primate fossil record. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 175-187.
53. Hartwig WC, Cartelle C. 1996. A complete skeleton of the giant South American primate Protopithecus. Nature 381: 307-311.
54. Hershkovitz P. 1977. Living New World Monkeys (Platyrrhini): with an Introduction to Primates. Vol 1. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
55. Hoffstetter MR. 1980. Origin and deployment of New World monkeys emphasizing the southern continents route. In: Ciochon RF, Chiarelli AB, editors. Evolutionary biology of New World monkeys and continental drift. New York: Plenum Press. p 103-122.
56. Houle A. 1999. The origin of platyrrhines: an evaluation of the Antarctic scenario and the floating island model. Am J Phys Anthropol 109: 541-559.
57. Hodgson JA, Sterner KN, Matthews LJ, Burrell A, Jani RA, Raaum RL, Stewart CB, Distotell TR. 2009. Successive radiations, not stasis, in the South American primate fauna. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106: 5534-5539.
58. Horovitz I. 1999. A phylogenetic study of living and fossil platyrrhines. Am Mus Novit 3269: 1-40.
59. Horovitz I, MacPhee RDE. 1999. The Quaternary Cuban platyrrhine Paralouatta varonai and the origin of Antillean monkeys. J Hum Evol 36: 33-68.
60. Horovitz I, Zardoya R, Meyer A. 1998. Platyrrhine systematics: a systematic analysis of molecular and morphological data. Am J Phys Anthropol 106: 261-281.
61. Iturralde Vinent MA, MacPhee RDE. 1999. Paleogeography of the Caribbean region: implications for Cenozoic biogeography. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 238: 1-95.
62. Jones AL. 2008. The evolution of brachiation in atelid primates, ancestral character states and history. Am J Phys Anthropol 137: 123-144.
63. Janson CH, Boinski S. 1992. Morphological and behavioral adaptations for foraging in generalist primates-the case of cebines. Am J Phys Anthropol 88: 483-498.
64. Karantanis NE. 2010. Comparative positional behaviour in three captive callitrichid species: Leontopithecus chrysomelas, Saguinus imperator and Cebuella pygmaea. MSc Thesis, University College of London.
65. Kay RF. 1990. The phyletic relationships of extant and fossil Pitheciinae (Platyrrhini, Anthropoidea). J Hum Evol 19: 175-208.
66. Kay RF. 1994. "Giant" tamarin from the Miocene of Colombia. Am J Phys Anthropol 95: 333-353.
67. Kay RF, Campbell V, Rossie JB, Colbert MW, Rowe TB. 2004. Olfactory fossa of Tremacebus harringtoni (Platyrrhini, early Miocene, Sacanana, Argentina): implications for activity pattern. Anat Rec A 281: 1157-1172.
68. Kay RF, Cozzuol MA. 2006. New platyrrhine monkeys from the Solimões Formation (late Miocene, Acre State, Brazil). J Hum Evol 50: 673-686.
69. Kay RF, Fleagle JG, Mitchell TRT, Colbert M, Bown T, Powers DW. 2008. The anatomy of Dolichocebus gaimanensis, a stem platyrrhine monkey from Argentina. J Hum Evol 54: 323-382.
70. Kay RF, Johnson D, Meldrum DJ, 1998. A new pitheciin primate from the middle Miocene of Argentina. Am J Primatol 45: 317-336.
71. Kay RF, Fleagle JG. 2010. Stem taxa. Homoplasy, long lineages, and the phylogenetic position of Dolichocebus. J Hum Evol 59: 218-222.
72. Kay RF, Hunt, KD, Beeker CD, Conrad GW, Johnson CC, Keller J. 2011. Preliminary notes on a newly discovered skull of the extinct monkey Antillothrix from Hispaniola and the origin of the Greater Antillean monkeys. J Hum Evol 60: 124-128.
73. Kay RF, Madden RH, Plavcan JM, Cifelli RL, Diaz JG. 1987. Stirtonia victoriae, a new species of Miocene Colombian primate. J Hum Evol 16: 173-196.
74. Kay RF, Meldrum DJ. 1997. A new small platyrrhine from the Miocene of Colombia and the phyletic position of the callitrichines. In: Kay RF, Madden RH, Cifelli RL, Flynn J, editors. A history of neotropical fauna: vertebrate paleontology of the miocene of Tropical South America. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. p 435-458.
75. Kay RF, Williams BA, Anaya F. 2001. The adaptation of Branisella boliviana, the earliest South American monkey. In: Plavcan JM, van Schaik C, Kay RF, Jungers WL, editors. Reconstructing behavior in the primate fossil record. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p 339-370.
76. Kinzey WG. 1992. Dietary and dental adaptations in the Pitehciinae. Am J Phys Anthropol 88: 499-514.
77. Lawler RR, Ford SM, Wright PC, Easley SP. 2006. The locomotor behavior of Callicebus brunneus and Callicebus torquatus. Folia primatol 77: 228-239.
78. Lockwood CA. 1999. Homoplasy and adaptation in the atelid postcranium. Am J Phys Anthropol 108: 459-482.
79. Luchterhand K, Kay RF, Madden RH. 1986. Mohanamico hershkovitzi, gen. et sp. Nov., un primate du Miocène moyen d'Amérique du Sud. Comp Rend Acad Sci Paris 303: 1753-1758.
80. MacFadden BJ. 1990. Chronology of Cenozoic primate localities in South America. J Hum Evol 19: 7-21.
81. MacFadden BJ. 2000. Cenozoic mammalian herbivores from the Americas: Reconstructing ancient diets and terrestrial communities. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 31: 33-59.
82. MacPhee RDE, Horovitz I. 2002. Extinct Quaternary platyrrhines of the Greater Antilles and Brazil. In: Hartwig WC, editor. The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 189-200.
83. MacPhee RDE, Fleagle JG. 1991. Postcranial remains of Xenothrix mcgregori (Primates, Xenotrichidae) and other Late Quaternary mammals from Long Mile Cave, Jamaica. Bull Am Mus Nat Hist 206: 287-321.
84. MacPhee RDE, Meldrum DJ. 2006. Postcranial remains of the extinct monkeys of the Greater Antilles (Platyrrhini, Callicebinae, Xenotrichini), with a consideration of semiterrestriality in Paralouatta. Am Mus Novit 3516: 1-65.
85. MacPhee RDE, Iturralde-Vinent MA, Gaffney ES. 2003. Domo de Zaza, an Early Miocene vertebrate locality in south-central Cuba, with notes on the tectonic evolution of Puerto Rico and Mona Passage. Am Mus Novit 3394: 1-42.
86. MacPhee RDE, Woods CA. 1982. A new fossil cebine from Hispaniola. Am J Phys Anthropol 58: 419-436.
87. Meireles CM, Czelusniak J, Schneider MPC, Muniz JAPC, Brigido MC, Ferreira HS, Goodman M. 1993. Molecular phylogeny of atelid NewWorld monkeys (Platyrrhini, Atelinae) based on g-globin gene sequences: evidence that Brachyteles is the sister group of Lagothrix. Mol Phylogenet Evol 12: 10-30.
88. Meldrum DJ. 1990. New fossil platyrrhine tali from the early Miocene of Argentina. Am J Phys Anthropol 83: 403-418.
89. Meldrum DJ. 1993. Postcranial adaptations and positional behavior in fossil platyrrhines. In: Gebo DL, editor. Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University, p 235-251.
90. Meldrum DJ. 1998. Tail-assisted hindlimb suspension as a transitional behavior in the evolution of prehensile tails. In: Strasser E, Fleagle JG, McHenry HM, editors. Advances in primatology: primate locomotion. New York: Plenum Press. p 145-156.
91. Meldrum DJ, Dagosto MD, White J. 1997. Hindlimb suspension and hindfoot reversal in Varecia variegata and other arboreal mammals. Am J Phys Anthropol 103: 85-102.
92. Meldrum DJ, Fleagle JG, Kay RF. 1990. Partial humeri of two Miocene Colombian primates. Am J Phys Anthropol 81: 413-422.
93. Meldrum DJ, Kay RF. 1997a. Nuciruptor rubricae, a new pitheciin seed predator from the Miocene of Colombia. Am J Phys Anthropol 102: 407-427.
94. Meldrum DJ, Kay RF. 1997b. Primate postcranial fossils from the Miocene of Colombia. In: Kay RF, Madden RH, Cifelli RL, Flynn J, editors. A history of neotropical fauna: vertebrate paleontology of the miocene of Tropical South America. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. p 459-472.
95. Meldrum DJ, Lemelin P. 1991. Axial skeleton of Cebupithecia sarmientoi (Pitheciinae, Platyrrhini) from the middle Miocene of La Venta, Colombia. Am J Primatol 25: 69-90.
96. Mittermeier RA. 1978. Locomotion and posture in Ateles geoffroyi and Ateles paniscus. Folia primatol 30: 161-193.
97. Nakatsukasa M, Takai M, Setoguchi T. 1997. Functional morphology of the postcranium and locomotor behaviour of Neosaimiri fieldsi, a Saimiri-like middle Miocene platyrrhine. Am J Phys Anthropol 102: 515-544.
98. Napier JR, Davis PR. 1959. The forelimb skeleton and associated remains of Proconsul africanus. Fossil Mam Afr 16: 1-69.
99. Opazo JC, Wildman DE, Prychitko T, Johnson RM, Goodman M. 2006. Phylogenetic relationships and divergence times among New World monkeys (Platyrrhini, Primates). Mol Phylogenet Evol 40: 274-280.
100. Pascual R, Ortiz Jaureguizar E. 1990. Evolving climates and mammal faunas in Cenozoic South America. J Hum Evol 19: 23-60.
101. Porter LM, Garber PA. 2004. Goeldi's monkey: a primate paradox? Evol Anthrop 13: 104-115.
102. Prates HM, Bicca Marques JC. 2008. Age-sex analysis of activity budget, diet, and positional behavior in Alouatta caraya in an orchard forest. Int J Primatol 29: 703-715.
103. Reeser LA. 1984. Morphological affinities of new fossil talus of Dolichocebus gaimanensis. Am J Phys Anthropol 63: 206-207.
104. Rivero M, Arredondo O. 1991. Paralouatta varonai, a new Quaternary platyrrhine from Cuba. J Hum Evol 21: 1-11.
105. Rosenberger AL. 1977. Xenothrix and ceboid phylogeny. J Hum Evol 6: 461-481.
106. Rosenberger AL. 1979. Cranial anatomy and implications of Dolichocebus, a late Oligocene ceboid primate. Nature 279 (5712): 416-418.
107. Rosenberger AL. 1992. Evolution of feeding niches in New World monkeys. Am J Phys Anthropol 88: 525-562.
108. Rosenberger AL. 2002. Platyrrhine paleontology and systematics: the paradigm shifts. In: Hartwig WC, editor. The primate fossil record. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 151-160.
109. Rosenberger AL. 2010. Platyrrhines, PAUP, parallelism, and the Long Lineage Hypothesis: a reply to Kay et al. (2008). J Hum Evol 59: 214-217.
110. Rosenberger AL, Hartwig WC, Takai M, Setoguchi T, Shigahara N. 1991a. Dental variabilty in Saimiri and the taxonomic status of Neosaimiri fieldsi, and early squirrel monkey from La Venta, Columbia. Int J Primatol 12: 291-302.
111. Rosenberger AL, Hartwig WC, Wolff RG. 1991b. Szalatavus attricuspis, an early platyrrhine primate. Folia primatol 56: 225-233.
112. Rosenberger AL, Setoguchi T, Hartwig WC. 1991c. Laventiana annectens, new genus and species: fossil evidence for the origin of callitrichine monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88: 2137-2140.
113. Rosenberger AL, Setoguchi T, Shigehara N. 1990. The fossil record of callitrichine primates. J Hum Evol 19: 209-236.
114. Rosenberger AL, Strier KB. 1989. Adaptive radiation of the atelid primates. J Hum Evol 18: 717-750.
115. Rosenberger AL, Tejedor MF, Cooke S, Pekar S. 2009. Platyrrhine ecophylogenetics, past and present. In: Garber P, Estrada A, Bicca-Marques JC. Heymann EW, Strier KB, editors. South American primates: comparative perspectives in the study of behavior, ecology and conservation. New York: Springer. p 69-113.
116. Rosenberger AL, Cooke SB, Rimoli R, Ni X, Cardoso L. 2011. First skull of Antillothrix bernensis, an extinct relict monkey from the Dominican Republic. Proc Biol Sci 278: 67-74.
117. Schneider H, Canavez FC, Sampaio I, Moreira MAM, Tagliaro CH, Seuanez HN. 2001. Can molecular data place each Neotropical monkey in its own branch? Chromosoma 109: 515-523.
118. Schneider H, Sampaio I, Harada ML, Barroso CML, Schneider MPC, Czelusniak J, Goodman M. 1996. Molecular phylogeny of the New World monkeys (Platyrrhini, Primates) based on two unlinked nuclear genes: IRBP interon 1 and e-globin sequences. Am J Phys Anthropol 100: 153-179.
119. Schneider H, Schneider MPC, Sampaio I, Harada ML, Stanhoope M, Czelusniak J, Goodman M. 1993. Molecular phylogeny of the New World monkeys (Platyrhini, Primates). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2: 225-242.
120. Schön Ybarra MA, Schön MA. 1987. Positional behavior and limb bone adaptations in red howling monkeys (Alouatta senicuhs). Folia primatol 49: 70-89.
121. Schrago CG. 2007. On the time scale of New World primate diversification. Am J Phys Anthropol 132: 344-354.
122. Seiffert ER, Simons EL, Simons CVM. 2004. Phylogenetic, biogeographic, and adaptive implications of new fossil evidence bearing on crown anthropoid origins and early stem catarrhine evolution. In: Ross C, Kay RF, editors. Anthropoid origins: new visions. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p 157-182.
123. Setoguchi T, Rosenberger AL. 1987. A fossil owl monkey from La Venta, Colombia. Nature 326: 692-694.
124. Singer SS, Schmitz J, Schwiegk C, Zischler H. 2003. Molecular cladistic markers in New World monkey phylogeny (Platyrrhini, Primates). Mol Phylogen Evol 26: 490-501.
125. Stafford BJ, Rosenberger AL, Beck BB. 1994. Locomotion of free-ranging golden lion tamarins (Leontopithecus rosalia) at the National Zoological Park. Zoo Biol 13: 33-344.
126. Stirton RA. 1951. Ceboid monkeys from the Miocene of Columbia. Bull Univ Calif Publ Geol Sci 28: 315-356.
127. Stirton RA, Savage DE. 1951. A new monkey from the La Venta Miocen of Colombia. Compil Estud Geol Offic Colombia 7: 345-356.
128. Strier KB. 1992. Atelinae adaptations: behavioral strategies and ecological constraints. Am J Phys Anthropol 88: 515-524.
129. Takai M. 1994. New specimens of Neosaimiri fieldsi from La Venta, Colombia: A middle Miocene ancestor of the living squirrel monkeys. J Hum Evol 27: 329-360.
130. Takai M, Anaya F. 1996. New specimens of the oldest fossil platyrrhine, Branisella boliviana, from Salla, Bolivia. Am J Phys Anthropol 99: 301-317.
131. Takai M, Anaya F, Shigehara N, Setoguchi T. 2000. New fossil materials of the earliest New World Monkey, Branisella boliviana, and the problem of platyrrhine origins. Am J Phys Anthropol 111: 263-281.
132. Takai M, Anaya F, Suzuki H, Shigehara N, Setoguchi T. 2001. A new platyrrhine from the middle Miocene of La Venta, Colombia, and the phyletic position of Callicebinae. Anthropol Sci 109: 289-308.
133. Tejedor MF. 2003. New fossil primate from Chile. J Hum Evol 44: 515-520.
134. Tejedor MF. 2008. The origin and evolution of Neotropical monkeys. Arquiv Mus Nac Rio Jan 66: 251-269.
135. Tejedor MF, Rosenberger AL. 2008. A neotype for Homunculus patagonicus Ameghino 1891, and a new interpretation of the taxon. Paleoanthropology 2008: 68-82.
136. Walker SE. 1993. Positional Adaptations and Ecology of the Pitheciini. Ph.D. Dissertation, City University of New York.
137. Walker SE, Ayres JM. 1996. Positional behavior of the white uakari (Cacajao calvus calvus). Am J Phys Anthropol 101: 161-172.
138. Wildman DE, Jameson NM, Opazo JC, Yi SV. 2009. A fully resolved genus level phylogeny of neotropical primates (Platyrrhini). Mol Phylogenet Evol 53: 694-702.
139. Wright KA. 2007. The relationship between locomotor behavior and limb morphology in brown (Cebus apella) and weeper (Cebus olivaceus) capuchins. Am J Primatol 69: 736-756.
140. Wright PC. 1989. The nocturnal primate niche in the New World. J Hum Evol 18: 635-658.
141. Youlatos D. 1998. Positional behavior of two sympatric Guianan capuchin monkeys, the brown capuchin (Cebus apella) and the wedge-capped capuchin (Cebus olivaceus). Mammalia 62: 351-365.
142. Youlatos D. 1999. Comparative locomotion of six sympatric primates in Ecuador. Ann Sci Nat Zool 20: 161-168.
143. Youlatos D. 2002. Positional behavior of black spider monkey (Ateles paniscus) in French Guiana. Int J Primatol 23: 1071-1093.
144. Youlatos D. 2004. Multivariate analysis of organismal and habitat parameters in two Neotropical primate communities. Am J Phys Anthropol 123: 181-194.
145. Youlatos D. 2008. Locomotion and positional behavior of spider monkeys. In: Campbell CJ, editor. Spider monkeys: behavior, ecology and evolution of the genus Ateles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 185-219.
146. Youlatos D. 2009. Locomotion, postures, and habitat use by pygmy marmosets (Cebuella pygmaea). In: Ford SM, Porter LM, Davis LC, editors. The smallest anthropoids: the marmoset/callimico radiation. New York: Springer Verlag. p 279-297.
147. Youlatos D, Gasc JP. 2001. Comparative positional behaviour of five primates. In: Bongers F, Charles-Dominique P, Forget M, Théry M, editors. Nouragues: dynamics and plant-animal interactions in a neotropical rain forest. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p 103-114.
148. Zaluar MT, Rocha Barbosa O, Loguercio MF, Rangel CH, Youlatos D. 2010. Utilização do habitat, locomoção e postura de Callithrix jacchus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia, Primates). V Congresso Brasileiro de Mastozoologia, São Pedro/São Paulo, Brazil.