Autoimmune neuromuscular disorders in childhood

Current Treatment Options in Neurology

Volumn 13, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 590-607

  McMillan, Hugh J ^b   Darras, Basil T ^a   Kang, Peter B ^a  

^a BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF EASTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMINOGLYCOSIDE DERIVATIVE; ATROPINE; AZATHIOPRINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM; CHOLINESTERASE INHIBITOR; CORTICOSTEROID DERIVATIVE; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYCLOSPORIN; CYTOCHROME P450; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; METHOTREXATE; METHYLPREDNISOLONE; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; PENICILLIN G; PLACEBO; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE; PYRIDOSTIGMINE; RITUXIMAB; SUXAMETHONIUM; TACROLIMUS; VITAMIN D;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACNE; ALOPECIA; ARTICLE; ASEPTIC MENINGITIS; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BODY HEIGHT; BONE DEMINERALIZATION; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; BRAIN DISEASE; CATARACT; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; CYSTITIS; DERMATOMYOSITIS; DIARRHEA; DIET THERAPY; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG COST; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG POTENTIATION; EXERCISE; GINGIVA HYPERPLASIA; GROWTH DISORDER; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HEPATITIS; HIP OSTEONECROSIS; HIRSUTISM; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INFECTION; JUVENILE DERMATOMYOSITIS; JUVENILE MYASTHENIA GRAVIS; KIDNEY DISEASE; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LIVER DISEASE; LIVER TOXICITY; MALIGNANT NEOPLASTIC DISEASE; MENTAL DISEASE; MONOTHERAPY; MUSCLE CRAMP; MYASTHENIA GRAVIS; NAUSEA; NEPHROTOXICITY; NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASE; NEUROTOXICITY; OTOTOXICITY; PANCREATITIS; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PLASMAPHERESIS; POLYNEUROPATHY; POLYRADICULONEUROPATHY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); SALIVATION; SEIZURE; SIDE EFFECT; SOMNOLENCE; T CELL LYMPHOMA; TERATOGENICITY; THYMECTOMY; VASCULAR ACCESS; VOMITING; WEIGHT GAIN;

EID: 81255158417     PISSN: 10928480     EISSN: 15343138     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11940-011-0146-5     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. MC Dalakas 1995 Basic aspects of neuroimmunology as they relate to immunotherapeutic targets: present and future prospects Ann Neurol 37 Suppl 1 S2 13 8968213 10.1002/ana.410370703
2. PG Oomes BC Jacobs MP Hazenberg JR Banffer FG van der Meche 1995 Anti-GM1 IgG antibodies and Campylobacter bacteria in Guillain-Barre syndrome: evidence of molecular mimicry Ann Neurol 38 2 170 175 7654064 10.1002/ana.410380208 1:CAS:528:DyaK2MXns1KgurY%3D
3. AA al-Qudah E Shahar WJ Logan EG Murphy 1988 Neonatal Guillain-Barre syndrome Pediatr Neurol 4 4 255 256 3242528 10.1016/0887-8994(88)90042-2 1:STN:280:DyaL1M3gs12luw%3D%3D
4. J Vajsar D Fehlings D Stephens 2003 Long-term outcome in children with Guillain-Barre syndrome J Pediatr 142 3 305 309 12640380 10.1067/mpd.2003.115 (Pubitemid 36338015)
5. DY Bradshaw HR Jones Jr 1992 Guillain-Barre syndrome in children: clinical course, electrodiagnosis, and prognosis Muscle Nerve 15 4 500 506 1565119 10.1002/mus.880150415 1:STN:280:DyaK383isl2qsg%3D%3D
6. DK Nguyen S Agenarioti-Belanger M Vanasse 1999 Pain and the Guillain-Barre syndrome in children under 6 years old J Pediatr 134 6 773 776 10356150 10.1016/S0022-3476(99)70297-0 1:STN:280:DyaK1M3osVOjsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 30186825)
7. J Roodbol MC de Wit C Walgaard M de Hoog CE Catsman-Berrevoets BC Jacobs 2011 Recognizing Guillain-Barre syndrome in preschool children Neurology 76 9 807 810 21357832 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31820e7b62 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3M3is1Witw%3D%3D This retrospective cohort study demonstrated that there is often a delay in diagnosing Guillain-Barré syndrome, comparing 23 preschool children with 32 older children. This delay was attributed to more nonspecific presenting symptoms in the younger age group, whereas the older children had signs and symptoms that more closely resembled the classic adult form of Guillain-Barré syndrome.
8. AK Asbury DR Cornblath 1990 Assessment of current diagnostic criteria for Guillain-Barre syndrome Ann Neurol 27 Suppl S21 24 2194422 10.1002/ana. 410270707 (Pubitemid 20178648)
9. A Yikilmaz S Doganay H Gumus H Per S Kumandas A Coskun 2010 Magnetic resonance imaging of childhood Guillain-Barre syndrome Childs Nerv Syst 26 8 1103 1108 20556395 10.1007/s00381-010-1197-8 This retrospective study of Guillain-Barré syndrome found that 38 of 40 children with the diagnosis had thickening and enhancement of the nerve roots on spine MRI, suggesting that MRI is a sensitive ancillary test for diagnosing this disorder. However, given the ascertainment of the patients, specificity of MRI for this diagnosis could not be assessed.
10. K Nagasawa S Kuwabara S Misawa K Fujii Y Tanabe N Yuki T Hattori Y Kohno 2006 Electrophysiological subtypes and prognosis of childhood Guillain-Barre syndrome in Japan Muscle Nerve 33 6 766 770 16506153 10.1002/mus.20520 (Pubitemid 43856793)
11. RA Hughes EF Wijdicks R Barohn E Benson DR Cornblath AF Hahn JM Meythaler RG Miller JT Sladky JC Stevens 2003 Practice parameter: immunotherapy for Guillain-Barre syndrome: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology Neurology 61 6 736 740 14504313 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3svksVKhsw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 37174468)
12. N Gurses S Uysal F Cetinkaya I Islek AG Kalayci 1995 Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in children with Guillain-Barre syndrome Scand J Infect Dis 27 3 241 243 8539548 10.3109/00365549509019016 1:STN:280: DyaK287ktleltg%3D%3D
13. R Korinthenberg J Schessl J Kirschner JS Monting 2005 Intravenously administered immunoglobulin in the treatment of childhood Guillain-Barre syndrome: a randomized trial Pediatrics 116 1 8 14 15995024 10.1542/peds.2004- 1324
14. R Korinthenberg JS Monting 1996 Natural history and treatment effects in Guillain-Barre syndrome: a multicentre study Arch Dis Child 74 4 281 287 8669925 10.1136/adc.74.4.281 1:STN:280:DyaK283lsF2qsA%3D%3D
15. B Buchwald R Ahangari A Weishaupt KV Toyka 2002 Intravenous immunoglobulins neutralize blocking antibodies in Guillain-Barre syndrome Ann Neurol 51 6 673 680 12112071 10.1002/ana.10205 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhsFygsb4%3D (Pubitemid 34568844)
16. Raphael JC, Chevret S, Hughes RA, Annane D. Plasma exchange for Guillain-Barre syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002(2):CD001798.
17. MA Epstein JT Sladky 1990 The role of plasmapheresis in childhood Guillain-Barre syndrome Ann Neurol 28 1 65 69 2375635 10.1002/ana.410280112 1:STN:280:DyaK3czivVOhtA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 20222153)
18. P Gajdos S Chevret B Clair C Tranchant C Chastang 1997 Clinical trial of plasma exchange and high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin in myasthenia gravis. Myasthenia Gravis Clinical Study Group Ann Neurol 41 6 789 796 9189040 10.1002/ana.410410615 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXktlyqsL4%3D (Pubitemid 27249184)
19. RA Hughes JM Newsom-Davis GD Perkin JM Pierce 1978 Controlled trial prednisolone in acute polyneuropathy Lancet 2 8093 750 753 80682 10.1016/S0140-6736(78)92644-2 1:STN:280:DyaE1M%2FgvFKjtg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 9034500)
20. Research criteria for diagnosis of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP) 1991 Report from an Ad Hoc Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology AIDS Task Force Neurology 41 5 617 618
21. PA McCombe JD Pollard JG McLeod 1987 Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy. A clinical and electrophysiological study of 92 cases Brain 110 Pt 6 1617 1630 3427403 10.1093/brain/110.6.1617
22. Y Nevo H Topaloglu 2002 88th ENMC international workshop: childhood chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (including revised diagnostic criteria), Naarden, The Netherlands, December 8-10, 2000 Neuromuscul Disord 12 2 195 200 11738363 10.1016/S0960-8966(01)00286-3 (Pubitemid 33152739)
23. AJ Duggins JG McLeod JD Pollard L Davies F Yang EO Thompson JR Soper 1999 Spinal root and plexus hypertrophy in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy Brain 122 Pt 7 1383 1390 10388803 10.1093/brain/122.7.1383 (Pubitemid 29324858)
24. MM Ryan PJ Grattan-Smith PG Procopis G Morgan RA Ouvrier 2000 Childhood chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy: clinical course and long-term outcome Neuromuscul Disord 10 6 398 406 10899445 10.1016/S0960-8966(00)00119-X 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3cvjtlWjug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 30433809)
25. M Cellerini S Salti V Desideri G Marconi 2000 MR imaging of the cauda equina in hereditary motor sensory neuropathies: correlations with sural nerve biopsy AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 21 10 1793 1798 11110529 1:STN:280: DC%2BD3M7ovVeqtg%3D%3D
26. Eftimov F, Winer JB, Vermeulen M, de Haan R, van Schaik IN. Intravenous immunoglobulin for chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009(1):CD001797. This Cochrane Database review found that IVIG was better than placebo for the treatment of CIDP. IVIG, plasma exchange, and steroids were found to be equally efficacious for this disease. The studies analyzed were performed primarily on adult patients.
27. R Korinthenberg 1999 Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy in children and their response to treatment Neuropediatrics 30 4 190 196 10569210 10.1055/s-2007-973489 1:STN:280: DC%2BD3c%2FjsVCqug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 29490720)
28. E Rossignol G D'Anjou N Lapointe E Haddad M Vanasse 2007 Evolution and treatment of childhood chronic inflammatory polyneuropathy Pediatr Neurol 36 2 88 94 17275659 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2006.09.012 (Pubitemid 46176551)
29. Z Simmons JJ Wald JW Albers 1997 Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy in children: II. Long-term follow-up, with comparison to adults Muscle Nerve 20 12 1569 1575 9390670 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199712)20: 12<1569::AID-MUS12>3.0.CO;2-W 1:STN:280:DyaK1c%2FltFSgtA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 27512346)
30. VV Vedanarayanan RS Kandt DV Lewis Jr GR DeLong 1991 Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy of childhood: treatment with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin Neurology 41 6 828 830 2046925 1:STN:280: DyaK3M3mtFWmtA%3D%3D
31. Y Nevo A Pestronk AJ Kornberg AM Connolly WC Yee I Iqbal LK Shield 1996 Childhood chronic inflammatory demyelinating neuropathies: clinical course and long-term follow-up Neurology 47 1 98 102 8710133 1:STN:280:DyaK283ptFShtg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 26243867)
32. N Hattori M Ichimura S Aoki M Nagamatsu T Yasuda K Kumazawa K Yamamoto T Mitsuma G Sobue 1998 Clinicopathological features of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy in childhood J Neurol Sci 154 1 66 71 9543324 10.1016/S0022-510X(97)00216-5 1:STN:280:DyaK1c3gt1ehtw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 28123216)
33. AF Hahn CF Bolton D Zochodne TE Feasby 1996 Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study Brain 119 Pt 4 1067 1077 8813271 10.1093/brain/119.4.1067 (Pubitemid 26300709)
34. RA Hughes P Donofrio V Bril MC Dalakas C Deng K Hanna HP Hartung N Latov IS Merkies PA van Doorn 2008 Intravenous immune globulin (10% caprylate-chromatography purified) for the treatment of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy (ICE study): a randomised placebo-controlled trial Lancet Neurol 7 2 136 144 18178525 10.1016/S1474- 4422(07)70329-0 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXis1WmsLs%3D
35. N Thompson P Choudhary RA Hughes RM Quinlivan 1996 A novel trial design to study the effect of intravenous immunoglobulin in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy J Neurol 243 3 280 285 8936360 10.1007/BF00868527 1:STN:280:DyaK2s%2FptVCmsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 26071992)
36. JR Mendell RJ Barohn ML Freimer JT Kissel W King HN Nagaraja R Rice WW Campbell PD Donofrio CE Jackson RA Lewis M Shy DM Simpson GJ Parry MH Rivner CA Thornton MB Bromberg R Tandan Y Harati MJ Giuliani 2001 Randomized controlled trial of IVIg in untreated chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy Neurology 56 4 445 449 11222785 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD3MXhvFelsbw%3D (Pubitemid 32172866)
37. M Vermeulen PA van Doorn A Brand PF Strengers FG Jennekens HF Busch 1993 Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in patients with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy: a double blind, placebo controlled study J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 56 1 36 39 8429321 10.1136/jnnp.56.1.36 1:STN:280:DyaK3s7lsFKktQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 23062977)
38. AF Hahn CF Bolton N Pillay C Chalk T Benstead V Bril K Shumak MK Vandervoort TE Feasby 1996 Plasma-exchange therapy in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy. A double-blind, sham-controlled, cross-over study Brain 119 Pt 4 1055 1066 8813270 10.1093/brain/119.4.1055 (Pubitemid 26300708)
39. PJ Dyck WJ Litchy KM Kratz GA Suarez PA Low AA Pineda AJ Windebank JL Karnes PC O'Brien 1994 A plasma exchange versus immune globulin infusion trial in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy Ann Neurol 36 6 838 845 7998769 10.1002/ana.410360607 1:STN:280:DyaK2M%2FptFCmsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 24370922)
40. R Hughes S Bensa H Willison P Van den Bergh G Comi I Illa E Nobile-Orazio P van Doorn M Dalakas M Bojar A Swan 2001 Randomized controlled trial of intravenous immunoglobulin versus oral prednisolone in chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy Ann Neurol 50 2 195 201 11506402 10.1002/ana.1088 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXmsVOksbg%3D (Pubitemid 32738144)
41. AS Fauci DC Dale JE Balow 1976 Glucocorticosteroid therapy: mechanisms of action and clinical considerations Ann Intern Med 84 3 304 315 769625 1:STN:280:DyaE287lvFSmtQ%3D%3D
42. MB Bromberg O Carter 2004 Corticosteroid use in the treatment of neuromuscular disorders: empirical and evidence-based data Muscle Nerve 30 1 20 37 15221875 10.1002/mus.20075 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXmtl2gtb8%3D (Pubitemid 38880321)
43. PJ Dyck P O'Brien C Swanson P Low J Daube 1985 Combined azathioprine and prednisone in chronic inflammatory-demyelinating polyneuropathy Neurology 35 8 1173 1176 4022350 1:STN:280:DyaL2M3mvVGhsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 15003451)
44. A Lindner B Schalke KV Toyka 1997 Outcome in juvenile-onset myasthenia gravis: a retrospective study with long-term follow-up of 79 patients J Neurol 244 8 515 520 9309559 10.1007/s004150050135 1:STN:280:DyaK2svlsFWktA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 27424791)
45. MH Barnett JD Pollard L Davies JG McLeod 1998 Cyclosporin A in resistant chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathy Muscle Nerve 21 4 454 460 9533779 10.1002/(SICI)1097-4598(199804)21:4<454::AID-MUS3>3.0.CO;2-8 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXivF2gu7w%3D (Pubitemid 28145321)
46. MO Herguner F Incecik S Altunbasak 2009 Cyclosporin treatment in three children with chronic inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy Pediatr Neurol 41 3 223 225 19664543 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2009.03.016
47. P Mullaney J Vajsar R Smith JR Buncic 2000 The natural history and ophthalmic involvement in childhood myasthenia gravis at the hospital for sick children Ophthalmology 107 3 504 510 10711889 10.1016/S0161-6420(99)00138-4 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c7nsFSmsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 30191373)
48. VV Ashraf AB Taly M Veerendrakumar S Rao 2006 Myasthenia gravis in children: a longitudinal study Acta Neurol Scand 114 2 119 123 16867035 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2006.00646.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28vktlaqtg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 44034260)
49. PI Andrews JM Massey JF Howard Jr DB Sanders 1994 Race, sex, and puberty influence onset, severity, and outcome in juvenile myasthenia gravis Neurology 44 7 1208 1214 8035917 1:STN:280:DyaK2czgvFOqug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 24232216)
50. A Evoli AP Batocchi E Bartoccioni MM Lino C Minisci P Tonali 1998 Juvenile myasthenia gravis with prepubertal onset Neuromuscul Disord 8 8 561 567 10093062 10.1016/S0960-8966(98)00077-7 1:STN:280:DyaK1M7ptlShsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 28555738)
51. DB Drachman 1994 Myasthenia gravis N Engl J Med 330 25 1797 1810 8190158 10.1056/NEJM199406233302507 1:STN:280:DyaK2c3kslCrtQ%3D%3D
52. PI Andrews JM Massey DB Sanders 1993 Acetylcholine receptor antibodies in juvenile myasthenia gravis Neurology 43 5 977 982 8492956 1:STN:280: DyaK3s3mtFKhsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 23150572)
53. LM Chiang BT Darras PB Kang 2009 Juvenile myasthenia gravis Muscle Nerve 39 4 423 431 19229875 10.1002/mus.21195 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXkvFent70%3D This recent review article discusses the diagnosis and treatment of juvenile MG.
54. B Anlar V Yilmaz G Saruhan-Direskeneli 2009 Long remission in muscle-specific kinase antibody-positive juvenile myasthenia Pediatr Neurol 40 6 455 456 19433280 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.11.014
55. CY Tsao JR Mendell ML Friemer JT Kissel 2002 Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome in children J Child Neurol 17 1 74 76 11913581 10.1177/ 088307380201700123 (Pubitemid 34406899)
56. L Zinman E Ng V Bril 2007 IV immunoglobulin in patients with myasthenia gravis: a randomized controlled trial Neurology 68 11 837 841 17353471 10.1212/01.wnl.0000256698.69121.45 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXisFyhu7s%3D (Pubitemid 46568535)
57. P Gajdos C Tranchant B Clair F Bolgert B Eymard T Stojkovic S Attarian S Chevret 2005 Treatment of myasthenia gravis exacerbation with intravenous immunoglobulin: a randomized double-blind clinical trial Arch Neurol 62 11 1689 1693 16286541 10.1001/archneur.62.11.1689 (Pubitemid 41626664)
58. Gajdos P, Chevret S, Toyka K. Intravenous immunoglobulin for myasthenia gravis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(1):CD002277.
59. C Lindberg O Andersen AK Lefvert 1998 Treatment of myasthenia gravis with methylprednisolone pulse: a double blind study Acta Neurol Scand 97 6 370 373 9669469 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1998.tb05968.x 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXktFyjtLc%3D (Pubitemid 28275908)
60. GO Skeie S Apostolski A Evoli NE Gilhus I Illa L Harms D Hilton-Jones A Melms J Verschuuren HW Horge 2010 Guidelines for treatment of autoimmune neuromuscular transmission disorders Eur J Neurol 17 7 893 902 20402760 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.03019.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cnotFyhtw%3D%3D This is a consensus statement regarding the treatment of autoimmune disorders of the neuromuscular junction, including MG. This statement focuses on adult patients, and thus the recommendations may not always be applicable to children.
61. RM Pascuzzi HB Coslett TR Johns 1984 Long-term corticosteroid treatment of myasthenia gravis: report of 116 patients Ann Neurol 15 3 291 298 6721451 10.1002/ana.410150316 1:STN:280:DyaL2c3gtFKnsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 14164748)
62. A Sghirlanzoni D Peluchetti R Mantegazza F Fiacchino F Cornelio 1984 Myasthenia gravis: prolonged treatment with steroids Neurology 34 2 170 174 6538004 1:STN:280:DyaL2c7hslynsw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 14185359)
63. V Cosi A Citterio M Lombardi G Piccolo A Romani A Erbetta 1991 Effectiveness of steroid treatment in myasthenia gravis: a retrospective study Acta Neurol Scand 84 1 33 39 1927259 10.1111/j.1600-0404.1991.tb04899.x 1:STN:280:DyaK38%2FisVymug%3D%3D
64. A Evoli AP Batocchi MT Palmisani M Lo Monaco P Tonali 1992 Long-term results of corticosteroid therapy in patients with myasthenia gravis Eur Neurol 32 1 37 43 1563453 10.1159/000116785 1:STN:280:DyaK383isFShsg%3D%3D
65. S Sathasivam 2008 Steroids and immunosuppressant drugs in myasthenia gravis Nat Clin Pract Neurol 4 6 317 327 18493241 10.1038/ncpneuro0810 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXmslWgs7o%3D (Pubitemid 351803614)
66. A randomised clinical trial comparing prednisone and azathioprine in myasthenia gravis. Results of the second interim analysis. Myasthenia Gravis Clinical Study Group. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1993;56(11):1157-63.
67. J Palace J Newsom-Davis B Lecky 1998 A randomized double-blind trial of prednisolone alone or with azathioprine in myasthenia gravis. Myasthenia Gravis Study Group Neurology 50 6 1778 1783 9633727 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXktFOisbw%3D (Pubitemid 28283251)
68. RS Tindall JT Phillips JA Rollins L Wells K Hall 1993 A clinical therapeutic trial of cyclosporine in myasthenia gravis Ann N Y Acad Sci 681 539 551 8357194 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1993.tb22937.x 1:STN:280:DyaK3szmt12hug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 23233874)
69. DM Bonifati C Angelini 1997 Long-term cyclosporine treatment in a group of severe myasthenia gravis patients J Neurol 244 9 542 547 9352450 10.1007/s004150050141 1:STN:280:DyaK1c%2FhtlOhtQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 27464098)
70. D Lavrnic A Vujic V Rakocevic-Stojanovic Z Stevic I Basta S Pavlovic R Trikic S Apostolski 2005 Cyclosporine in the treatment of myasthenia gravis Acta Neurol Scand 111 4 247 252 15740576 10.1111/j.1600-0404.2005.00378.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjtVymu7s%3D (Pubitemid 40380460)
71. Y Nagane K Utsugisawa D Obara R Kondoh Y Terayama 2005 Efficacy of low-dose FK506 in the treatment of Myasthenia gravis - a randomized pilot study Eur Neurol 53 3 146 150 15900097 10.1159/000085833 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD2MXlsVCqtL0%3D (Pubitemid 40864306)
72. JM Ponseti J Gamez J Azem M Lopez-Cano R Vilallonga M Armengol 2008 Tacrolimus for myasthenia gravis: a clinical study of 212 patients Ann N Y Acad Sci 1132 254 263 18096852 10.1196/annals.1405.000 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXoslSks7k%3D (Pubitemid 351841343)
73. WS Baek A Bashey GL Sheean 2007 Complete remission induced by rituximab in refractory, seronegative, muscle-specific, kinase-positive myasthenia gravis J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 78 7 771 17575026 10.1136/jnnp.2006.093567 (Pubitemid 46998860)
74. DB Sanders IK Hart R Mantegazza SS Shukla ZA Siddiqi MH De Baets A Melms MW Nicolle N Solomons DP Richman 2008 An international, phase III, randomized trial of mycophenolate mofetil in myasthenia gravis Neurology 71 6 400 406 18434638 10.1212/01.wnl.0000312374.95186.cc 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXptFSltL4%3D
75. D Barth M Nabavi Nouri E Ng P Nwe V Bril 2011 Comparison of IVIg and PLEX in patients with myasthenia gravis Neurology 76 23 2017 2023 21562253 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31821e5505 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3MrnvF2lsg%3D%3D In this prospective study, 84 adults with moderate to severe myasthenia gravis were randomized to IVIG or plasma exchange treatment arms. The two treatments were found to be equally efficacious and equally well tolerated in the short term.
76. A Kamel M Essa 2009 Effectiveness of prethymectomy plasmapheresis on the short-term outcome of non-thymomatous generalized myasthenia gravis Egypt J Neurol Psychiatr Neurosurg 46 1 161 168 In this prospective study, 35 adults with MG were randomized into two treatment groups. The first group received plasma exchange prior to thymectomy (19 patients) and the second group did not receive plasma exchange prior to thymectomy (16 patients). The first group had shorter durations of mechanical ventilation, intensive care, and hospital admission, with a lower rate of myasthenic crisis than the second group.
77. MM Tracy W McRae JG Millichap 2009 Graded response to thymectomy in children with myasthenia gravis J Child Neurol 24 4 454 459 19339286 10.1177/0883073808325653 In this retrospective study, 13 children with juvenile MG underwent thymectomy. Among these patients, 62% experienced improvement in their symptoms, and 31% experienced complete remission.
78. M Rodriguez MR Gomez FM Howard Jr WF Taylor 1983 Myasthenia gravis in children: long-term follow-up Ann Neurol 13 5 504 510 6870202 10.1002/ana.410130506 1:STN:280:DyaL3s3lsVKmtg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 13086668)
79. C Adams D Theodorescu EG Murphy B Shandling 1990 Thymectomy in juvenile myasthenia gravis J Child Neurol 5 3 215 218 2398237 10.1177/088307389000500313 1:STN:280:DyaK3cznsFyhsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 20274286)
80. LJ McCann AD Juggins SM Maillard LR Wedderburn JE Davidson KJ Murray CA Pilkington 2006 The Juvenile Dermatomyositis National Registry and Repository (UK and Ireland)-clinical characteristics of children recruited within the first 5 yr Rheumatology (Oxford) 45 10 1255 1260 10.1093/rheumatology/kel099 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28rmvFWltQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 44542066)
81. LC Miller AF Michael Y Kim 1987 Childhood dermatomyositis. Clinical course and long-term follow-up Clin Pediatr (Phila) 26 11 561 566 10.1177/000992288702601101 1:STN:280:DyaL1c%2FivVagtg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 18043638)
82. AM Huber B Lang CM LeBlanc N Birdi RK Bolaria P Malleson I MacNeil JA Momy G Avery BM Feldman 2000 Medium- and long-term functional outcomes in a multicenter cohort of children with juvenile dermatomyositis Arthritis Rheum 43 3 541 549 10728746 10.1002/1529-0131(200003)43:3<541::AID-ANR9>3.0.CO;2-T 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c7ptFSqsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 30394944)
83. A Bohan JB Peter 1975 Polymyositis and dermatomyositis (first of two parts) N Engl J Med 292 7 344 347 1090839 10.1056/NEJM197502132920706 1:STN:280:DyaE2M7hvVyrtA%3D%3D
84. AV Ramanan BM Feldman 2002 Clinical features and outcomes of juvenile dermatomyositis and other childhood onset myositis syndromes Rheum Dis Clin North Am 28 4 833 857 12506775 10.1016/S0889-857X(02)00024-8 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3s%2FgtFWgsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 36008555)
85. BM Feldman LG Rider AM Reed LM Pachman 2008 Juvenile dermatomyositis and other idiopathic inflammatory myopathies of childhood Lancet 371 9631 2201 2212 18586175 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60955-1 (Pubitemid 351890413)
86. LR Wedderburn LG Rider 2009 Juvenile dermatomyositis: new developments in pathogenesis, assessment and treatment Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol 23 5 665 678 19853831 10.1016/j.berh.2009.07.007 This helpful review article discusses the treatment of juvenile dermatomyositis.
87. LM Pachman JR Hayford A Chung CA Daugherty MA Pallansch CW Fink HL Gewanter R Jerath BA Lang J Sinacore IS Szer AR Dyer MC Hochberg 1998 Juvenile dermatomyositis at diagnosis: clinical characteristics of 79 children J Rheumatol 25 6 1198 1204 9632086 1:STN:280:DyaK1c3ptlyntQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 28350898)
88. E Stringer J Bohnsack SL Bowyer TA Griffin AM Huber B Lang CB Lindsley S Ota C Pilkington AM Reed R Scuccimarri BM Feldman 2010 Treatment approaches to juvenile dermatomyositis (JDM) across North America: The Childhood Arthritis and Rheumatology Research Alliance (CARRA) JDM Treatment Survey J Rheumatol 37 9 1953 1961 20595275 10.3899/jrheum.090953 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtlaqurrI This article, summarizing a survey of pediatric rheumatologists in Canada and the United States, suggests that treatment with corticosteroids and methotrexate is the standard of care for juvenile dermatomyositis.
89. AM Huber EH Giannini SL Bowyer S Kim B Lang CB Lindsley LM Pachman C Pilkington AM Reed RM Rennebohm LG Rider CA Wallace BM Feldman 2010 Protocols for the initial treatment of moderately severe juvenile dermatomyositis: results of a Children's Arthritis and Rheumatology Research Alliance Consensus Conference Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 62 2 219 225 1:CAS:528: DC%2BC3cXhtFKjs7nK This article describes the results of a consensus meeting held in Toronto regarding the treatment of juvenile dermatomyositis. Three treatment protocols arose from this conference, all of which involved the use of corticosteroids and methotrexate. One of these protocols also involved the use of IVIG.
90. SL Bowyer CE Blane DB Sullivan JT Cassidy 1983 Childhood dermatomyositis: factors predicting functional outcome and development of dystrophic calcification J Pediatr 103 6 882 888 6644423 10.1016/S0022-3476(83)80706-9 1:STN:280:DyaL2c%2FmsVShsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 14204178)
91. S Al-Mayouf A Al-Mazyed S Bahabri 2000 Efficacy of early treatment of severe juvenile dermatomyositis with intravenous methylprednisolone and methotrexate Clin Rheumatol 19 2 138 141 10791626 10.1007/s100670050032 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3c3ltValtw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 30236145)
92. AV Ramanan N Campbell-Webster S Ota S Parker D Tran PN Tyrrell B Cameron L Spiegel R Schneider RM Laxer ED Silverman BM Feldman 2005 The effectiveness of treating juvenile dermatomyositis with methotrexate and aggressively tapered corticosteroids Arthritis Rheum 52 11 3570 3578 16255046 10.1002/art.21378 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXht1Krur%2FI (Pubitemid 41612226)
93. NY Olson CB Lindsley 1989 Adjunctive use of hydroxychloroquine in childhood dermatomyositis J Rheumatol 16 12 1545 1547 2483176 1:STN:280:DyaK3c7nt1ehtw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 20053192)
94. SM Al-Mayouf RM Laxer R Schneider ED Silverman BM Feldman 2000 Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy for juvenile dermatomyositis: efficacy and safety J Rheumatol 27 10 2498 2503 11036850 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXnsFCqsL8%3D
95. A Reiff DJ Rawlings B Shaham E Franke L Richardson IS Szer BH Bernstein 1997 Preliminary evidence for cyclosporin A as an alternative in the treatment of recalcitrant juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile dermatomyositis J Rheumatol 24 12 2436 2443 9415655 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXnvFOhtb4%3D (Pubitemid 28005149)
96. J Heckmatt N Hasson C Saunders N Thompson AM Peters G Cambridge M Rose SA Hyde V Dubowitz 1989 Cyclosporin in juvenile dermatomyositis Lancet 1 8646 1063 1066 2566009 10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92456-2 1:STN:280:DyaL1M3jslGnsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 19123068)
97. P Riley SM Maillard LR Wedderburn P Woo KJ Murray CA Pilkington 2004 Intravenous cyclophosphamide pulse therapy in juvenile dermatomyositis. A review of efficacy and safety Rheumatology (Oxford) 43 4 491 496 10.1093/rheumatology/ keh082 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXitlyhsb0%3D (Pubitemid 38495769)
98. JC Edge JD Outland JR Dempsey JP Callen 2006 Mycophenolate mofetil as an effective corticosteroid-sparing therapy for recalcitrant dermatomyositis Arch Dermatol 142 1 65 69 16415388 10.1001/archderm.142.1.65 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD28XhtVOjsb0%3D (Pubitemid 43107363)
99. A Yamada Y Ohshima N Omata M Yasutomi M Mayumi 2004 Steroid-sparing effect of tacrolimus in a patient with juvenile dermatomyositis presenting poor bioavailability of cyclosporine A Eur J Pediatr 163 9 561 562 15243811 10.1007/s00431-004-1497-7 (Pubitemid 39222512)
100. MA Cooper DL Willingham DE Brown AR French FF Shih AJ White 2007 Rituximab for the treatment of juvenile dermatomyositis: a report of four pediatric patients Arthritis Rheum 56 9 3107 3111 17763414 10.1002/art.22856 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXht1GgtbrN (Pubitemid 47502758)
101. DM Levy CA Bingham PJ Kahn AH Eichenfield LF Imundo 2010 Favorable outcome of juvenile dermatomyositis treated without systemic corticosteroids J Pediatr 156 2 302 307 19846111 10.1016/j.jpeds.2009.09.008 1:CAS:528: DC%2BC3cXpslCrtg%3D%3D This is a retrospective study of 38 patients with juvenile dermatomyositis, 8 of whom who were treated primarily with a combination of IVIG and methotrexate, but not with corticosteroids. This study suggests that a steroid-sparing alternative treatment regimen for juvenile dermatomyositis may be possible, but further study is needed.