Short-term fluctuations in vegetation and phytoplankton during the Middle Eocene greenhouse climate: A 640-kyr record from the Messel oil shale (Germany)

International Journal of Earth Sciences

Volumn 100, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 1851-1874

  Lenz, Olaf K ^a   Wilde, Volker ^b   Riegel, Walter ^b,c  

^a DARMSTADT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Germany)

^b SENCKENBERG RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GÖTTINGEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Climate variability; Maar lake; Middle Eocene; Milankovitch cycles; Multivariate statistics; Palynology; Time series analysis

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE VARIATION; CORRESPONDENCE ANALYSIS; DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT; GEOLOGICAL RECORD; HYPSITHERMAL; MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS; OIL SHALE; ORBITAL FORCING; PALEOCENE-EOCENE BOUNDARY; PALEOCLIMATE; PALYNOLOGY; PHYTOPLANKTON; TIME SERIES ANALYSIS; VEGETATION DYNAMICS;

DARMSTADT; GERMANY; HESSE; MESSEL;

ALGAE; BOTRYOCOCCUS; DINOPHYCEAE;

EID: 80355146409     PISSN: 14373254     EISSN: 14373262     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00531-010-0609-z     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Bains S, Norris RD, Corfield RM, Faul KL (2000) Termination of global warmth at the Palaeocene/Eocene boundary through productivity feedback. Nature 407: 171-174.
2. Barrett PJ (1996) Antarctic paleoenvironment through Cenozoic times: a review. Terra Ant 3: 103-119.
3. Batten DJ (1996) Palynofacies and palaeoenvironmental interpretation. In: Jansonius J, McGregor DC (eds) Palynology: principles and applications, vol. 3-New Directions, other Applications and Floral History, Am Assoc Strat Palyn Found, pp 1011-1064.
4. Batten DJ, Grenfell HR (1996) Chapter 7D. Botryococcus. In: Jansonius J, McGregor DC (eds) Palynology: principles and applications, vol 1, Am Assoc Strat Palyn Found, pp 205-214.
5. 2 and temperature spike across the Palaeocene-Eocene transition in NW Europe. J Geol Soc Lond 155: 591-594.
6. Bennett KD (2005) Documentation for psimpoll 4. 25 and pscomb 1. 03. C programs for plotting pollen diagrams and analysing pollen data. Uppsala University, Uppsala.
7. Berger A, Loutre MF (1997) Intertropical latitudes and precessional and half-precessional cycles. Science 287: 1476-1478.
8. Berger A, Loutre MF, Mélice JL (2006) Equatorial insolation: from precession harmonics to eccentricity frequencies Clim. Past 2: 131-136.
9. Bice KL, Scotese CR, Seidov D, Barron EJ (2000) Quantifying the role of geographic change in Cenozoic ocean heat transport using uncoupled atmosphere and ocean models. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 161: 295-310.
10. Collinson ME (2001) Cainozoic ferns and their distribution. Brittonia 53(2): 173-235.
11. Collinson ME (2002) The ecology of Cainozoic ferns. Rev Palaeobot Palyno 119: 51-68.
12. Collinson ME, Hooker JJ, Gröcke DR (2003) Cobham lignite bed and penecontemporaneous macrofloras of Southern England: A record of vegetation and fire across palaeocene-eocene thermal maximum. Geol Soc Am Spec Pap 369: 333-349.
13. Daubechies I (1990) The wavelet transform time-frequency localization and signal analysis. IEEE T Inform Theory 36: 961-1004.
14. De Deckker P (1988) Large Australian lakes during the last 20 million years: sites for petroleum source rock or metal ore deposition, or both? In: Fleet AJ et al. (eds) Lacustrine Petroleum Source Rocks. Geol Soc Spec Publ, vol 40, pp 45-58.
15. Dunca E, Mutvei H, Göransson P, Mörth CM, Schöne BR, Whitehouse MJ, Elfman M, Baden SP (2009) Using ocean quahog (Artica islandica) shells to reconstruct palaeoenvironment in Öresund, Kattegat and Skagerrak, Sweden. Int J Earth Sci 98: 3-17.
16. El Bay R, Jacoby W, Wallner H (2001) Milankovitch signals in messel "Oilshales". Kaupia 11: 69-72.
17. Felder M, Harms FJ (2004) Lithologie und genetische Interpretation der vulkano-sedimentären Ablagerungen aus der Grube Messel anhand der Forschungsbohrung Messel 2001 und weiterer Bohrungen (Eozän, Messel-Formation, Sprendlinger Horst, Südhessen). Cour For Senckenbg 252: 151-206.
18. Felder M, Harms FJ, Liebig V (2001) Lithologische Beschreibung der Forschungsbohrungen Groß-Zimmern, Prinz von Hessen und Offenthal sowie zweier Lagerstättenbohrungen bei Eppertshausen (Sprendlinger Horst, Eozän, Messel-Formation, Süd-Hessen). Geol Jb Hessen 128: 29-82.
19. Ferguson DK (1993) Plant taphonomic studies with special reference to Messel. Kaupia 2: 117-126.
20. Fischer AG (1986) Climatic rhythms recorded in strata. Annu Rev Earth Pl Sc 14: 351-376.
21. Frederiksen NO (1998) Upper Paleocene and lowermost Eocene angiosperm pollen biostratigraphy of the eastern Gulf Coast and Virginia. Micropaleontology 44(1): 45-68.
22. Gauch HG (1982) Multivariate analysis in community ecology. Cambridge University Press, New York.
23. Goth K (1990) Der Messeler Ölschiefer-ein Algenlaminit. Cour For Senckenbg 131: 1-143.
24. Grein M, Utescher T, Wilde V, Roth-Nebelsick A. Reconstruction of the Middle Eocene climate of Messel using palaeobotanical data. Neues Jahrb Geol P-A (in press).
25. Guy-Ohlson D (1992) Botryococcus as an aid in the interpretation of palaeoenvironment and depositional processes. Rev Palaeobot Palyno 71: 1-15.
26. Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD (2001) PAST: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for Education and Data Analysis. Palaeontol Electron 4(1). Available via http://palaeo-electronica. org/2001_1/past/issue1_01. htm.
27. Harms FJ (2001) Eozänzeitliche Ölschiefer-Vorkommen auf dem Sprendlinger Horst (Südhessen): ein Modell zu ihrer Entstehung. Natur Museum 131(3): 86-94.
28. Harms FJ, with contrib. of Wallner H, Jacoby WR (1999) Karte zur Verbreitung der Messel-Formation/Faltblatt Welterbe Grube Messel-Map, back side with comment. Hessisches Landesamt für Bodenforschung, Wiesbaden.
29. Harms FJ, Nix T, Felder M (2003) Neue Darstellungen zur Geologie des Ölschiefer-Vorkommens Grube Messel. Natur Museum 133(5): 140-148.
30. Harrington GJ (2001) Impact of Paleocene/Eocene Greenhouse Warming on North American Paratropical Forests. Palaios 16: 266-278.
31. Harrington GJ, Jaramillo CA (2007) Paratropical floral extinction in the Late Palaeocene-Early Eocene. J Geol Soc Lond 164: 323-332.
32. Harrington GJ, Kemp SJ (2001) US Gulf Coast vegetation dynamics during the latest Palaeocene. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 167: 1-21.
33. Harrington GJ, Kemp SJ, Koch PL (2004) Palaeocene-Eocene paratropical floral change in North America: responses to climate change and plant immigration. J Geol Soc Lond 161: 173-184.
34. Harrington GJ, Clechenko ER, Clay Kelly D (2005) Palynology and organic-carbon isotope ratios across a terrestrial Paleocene/Eocene boundary section in the Williston Basin, North Dakota, USA. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 226: 214-232.
35. Herrmann M (2007) Eine palynologische Analyse der Bohrung Enspel: Rekonstruktion der Klima- und Vegetationsgeschichte im Oberoligozän. Dissertation, University of Tübingen, Available via http://deposit. ddb. de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=986962694. Accessed 21 Dez 2007.
36. Hill MO, Gauch HG (1980) Detrended Correspondence analysis: an improved ordination technique. Vegetatio 42: 47-58.
37. Irion G (1977) Der eozäne See von Messel. Natur Museum 107: 213-218.
38. Jacoby W, Sebazungu E, Wallner H, Gabriel G, Pucher R (2005) Potential field data fort he Messel Pit and surroundings. Cour For Senckenbg 255: 1-9.
39. Janssen CR, Birks HJB (1994) Recurrent groups of pollen types in time. Rev Palaeobot Palyno 82: 165-173.
40. Jaramillo C, Rueda MJ, Mora G (2006) Cenozoic plant diversity in the neotropics. Science 311: 1893-1896.
41. Jiménez-Moreno G, Rodríguez-Tovar FJ, Pardo-Igúzquiza E, Fauquette S, Suc J-P, Müller P (2005) High-resolution palynological analysis in the late early-middle Micocene core from the Pannonian Basin, Hungary: climatic changes, astronomical forcing and eustatic fluctuations in the Central Paratethys. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 216: 73-97.
42. Jiménez-Moreno G, Abdul Aziz H, Rodríguez-Tovar F, Pardo-Igúzquiza E, Suc J-P (2007) Palynological evidence for astronomical forcing in Early Miocene lacustrine deposits from Rubielos de Mora Basin (NE Spain). Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 252: 601-616.
43. Kaiser ML, Ashraf R (1974) Gewinnung und Präparation fossiler Pollen und Sporen sowie anderer Palynomorphae unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Siebmethode. Geol Jb A 25: 85-114.
44. Kennett JP, Stott LD (1991) Abrupt deep-sea warming, palaeoceanographic changes and benthic extinctions at the end oft he Paleocene. Nature 353: 225-229.
45. Köhler J, Clausing A (2000) Taxonomy and palaeoecology of dinoflagellate cysts from Upper Oligocene freshwater sediments of lake Enspel, Westerwald area, Germany. Rev Palaeobot Palyno 112: 39-49.
46. Komárek J, Marvan P (1992) Morphological Differences in Natural Populations of the Genus Botryococcus (Clorophyceae). Arch Protistenkd 141: 65-100.
47. Kovach WL (1989) Comparisons of multivariate analytical techniques for use in pre-Quarternary plant paleoecology. Rev Palaeobot Palyno 60: 255-282.
48. Kraus MJ, Riggins S (2007) Transient drying during the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM): analysis of paleosols in the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 245: 444-461.
49. Krutzsch W (1992) Paläobotanische Klimagliederung des Alttertiärs (Mitteleozän bis Oberoligozän) in Mitteldeutschland und das Problem der Verknüpfung mariner und kontinentaler Gliederungen (klassische Biostratigraphienpaläobotanisch- ökologische Klimastratigraphie-Evolutionsstratigraphie der Vertebraten). Neues Jahrb Geol P-A 186(1/2): 137-253.
50. Krutzsch W (2004) Neue Untersuchungen über die präquartäre Malvaceen-Pollen aus den Unterfamilien der Tilioideae, Helicteroideae und Bombacoideae. Palaeontogr Abt B 267: 67-160.
51. Krutzsch W, Vanhoorne R (1977) Die Pollenflora von Epinois und Loksbergen in Belgien. Palaeontogr Abt B 163: 1-110.
52. Laskar J, Robutel P, Joutel F, Gastineau M, Correia ACM, Levrard B (2004) A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the earth. Astron Astrophys 428: 261-285.
53. Lau KM, Weng H (1995) Climate signal detection using wavelet transform: how to make a time series sing. B Am Meteorol Soc 76(12): 2391-2402.
54. Lenz OK (2005) Palynologie und Paläoökologie eines Küstenmoores aus dem Mittleren Eozän Mitteleuropas-Die Wulfersdorfer Flözgruppe aus dem Tagebau Helmstedt, Niedersachsen. Palaeontogr Abt B 271: 1-157.
55. Lenz OK, Wilde V, Riegel W, Schaarschmidt F (2005) Klima- und Vegetationsdynamik im Mitteleozän von Messel-eine Neubewertung der palynologischen Daten aus der Kernbohrung 4 von 1980. In: Harms FJ, Schaal S (eds) Current geological and paleontological research in the messel formation. Cour For Senckenbg, vol 255, pp 81-101.
56. Lenz OK, Wilde V, Riegel W (2007a) Recolonization of a Middle Eocene volcanic site: quantitative palynology of the initial phase of the maar lake of Messel (Germany). Rev Palaeobot Palyno 145: 217-242.
57. Lenz OK, Wilde V, Riegel W, Heinrichs T (2007b) Distribution and paleoecologic significance of the freshwater dinoflagellate cyst Messelodinium thielepfeifferae gen. et sp. nov. from the Middle Eocene of Lake Messel, Germany. Palynology 31: 119-134.
58. Liebig V (2001) Neuaufnahme der Forschungsbohrungen KB 1, 2, 4 und 7 von 1980 aus der Grube Messel (Sprendlinger Horst, Südhessen). Kaupia 11: 3-68.
59. Lorenz V (2000) Formation of maar-diatreme-volcanoes. International Maar Conference. Terra Nostra 2000/6: 284-291.
60. Lourens LJ, Sluijs A, Kroon D, Zachos JC, Thomas E, Röhl U, Bowles J, Raffi I (2005) Astronomical pacing of late Palaeocene to early Eocene global warming events. Nature 235: 1083-1087.
61. Mai DH (1981) Entwicklung und klimatische Differenzierung der Laubwaldflora Mitteleuropas im Tertiär. Flora 171: 525-582.
62. Mai DH (1995) Tertiäre Vegetationsgeschichte Europas. Fischer, Jena.
63. 39Ar dating on a basaltic rock fragment. In: Harms FJ, Schaal S (eds) Current geological and paleontological research in the messel formation. Cour For Senckenbg 255: 67-75.
64. Mertz DF, Renne PR, Wuttke M, Mödden C (2007) A numerically calibrated reference level (MP28) for the terrestrial mammal-based biozonation of the European Upper Oligocene. Int J Earth Sci 96: 353-361.
65. Morlet J (1983) Sampling theory and wave propagation. In: Chen CH (ed) NATO ASI Series. Issues in acoustic signal/image processing and recognition I: 233-261.
66. Mosbrugger V, Utescher T, Dilcher DL (2005) Cenozoic continental climatic evolution of Central Europe. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 14964-14969.
67. Nickel B (1996) Die mitteleozäne Mikroflora von Eckfeld bei Manderscheid/Eifel. Mainzer Naturwiss Arch Beiheft 18: 1-146.
68. Pälike H, Shackleton NJ, Röhl U (2001) Astronomical forcing in late Eocene marine sediments. Earth Planet Sc Lett 193: 589-602.
69. Pflug HD (1952) Palynologie und Stratigraphie der eozänen Braunkohlen von Helmstedt. Palaeontol Z 26(1/2): 112-137.
70. Pflug HD (1957) Zur Altersfolge und Faziesgliederung mitteleuropäischer (insbesondere hessischer) Braunkohlen. Notizbl Hess Landesamt Bodenforsch Wiesbaden 85: 152-178.
71. Pross J, Schmiedl G (2002) Early Oligocene dinoflagellate cysts from the Upper Rhine Graben (SW Germany): paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic implications. Mar Micropaleontol 45: 1-24.
72. Richter G, Clausing A (2004) Süßwasser-Dinoflagellaten aus der Grube Messel. Natur Museum 134(4): 129-130.
73. Riegel W, Kaouras G, Velitzelos E (1995) Ecological aspects of coal formation in Neogene basins of Greece. Ann Géol Pays Hellénique 34: 649-661.
74. Roehler HW (1993) Eocene climates, depositional environments, and geography, greater Green River Basin, Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1506-F.
75. Röhl U, Bralower TJ, Norris RD, Wefer G (2000) New chronology for the late Paleocene thermal maximum and its environmental implications. Geology 28(10): 927-930.
76. Röhl U, Norris RD, Ogg JG (2003) Cyclostratigraphy of upper Paleocene and lower Eocene sediments at Blake Nose Site 1051 (western North Atlantic). In: Wing SL, Gingerich PD, Schmitz B, Thomas E (eds) Causes and consequences of globally warm climates in the early Paleogene. Geological Society of America Special Paper 369, Boulder, Colorado, pp 576-589.
77. Röhl U, Brinkhuis H, Strickley CE, Fuller M, Schellenberg SA, Wefer G, Wiliams GL (2004) Sea level and astronomically induced environmental changes in Middle and Late Eocene sediments from the East Tasman Plateau. In: Exon N, Kennett JP, Malone M (eds) The Cenozoic Southern Ocean: Tectonics, Sedimentation and Climate Change Between Australia and Antarctica. AGU Geophys Monog Ser, vol 151, pp 127-152.
78. Röhl U, Westerhold T, Monechi S, Thomas E, Zachos JC, Donner B (2005) The third and final early eocene thermal maximum: characteristics, timing and mechanisms of the "X" event. Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, vol 37(7), p. 264.
79. Rolf C, Pucher R, Schulz R, Wonik T (2005) Magnetische Untersuchungen an Kernen der Forschungsbohrung Messel 2001-Erste Erkenntnisse zum Erwerb magnetischer Remanenzen in Pyroklastika. In: Harms FJ, Schaal S (eds) Current Geological and Paleontological research in the Messel Formation. Cour For Senckenbg, vol 255, pp 47-55.
80. Round FE (1981) The ecology of algae. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
81. Round FE, Brook AJ (1959) The phytoplankton of some Irish loughs and an assessment of their trophic status. Proc R Ir Acad 60: 168-191.
82. Ruttner F (1952) Planktonstudien der Deutschen Limnologischen Sunda-Expedition. Arch Hydrobiol Suppl 21(1/2): 1-274.
83. Schaal S, Schneider U (1995) Chronik der Grube Messel. Kempkes, Gladenbach.
84. Schaarschmidt F (1988) Der Wald, fossile Pflanzen als Zeugen eines warmen Klimas. In: Schaal S, Ziegler W (eds) Messel-Ein Schaufenster in die Geschichte der Erde und des Lebens. Waldemar Kramer, Frankfurt, pp 29-52.
85. Schmitz B, Pujalte V (2007) Abrupt increase in seasonal extreme precipitation at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary. Geology 35(3): 215-218.
86. Schöne B, Fiebig J (2009) Seasonality in the North Sea during the Allerød and Late Medieval Climate Optimum using bivalve sclerochronology. Int J Earth Sci 98: 83-98.
87. Schuler M (1990) Environnements et paléoclimats Paléogènes. Palynologie et biostratigraphie de l'Eocène et de l'Oligocène inférieur dans les fossés rhénan, rhodanien et de Hesse. Document du BRGM 190: 1-503.
88. Schulz M, Mudelsee M (2002) REDFIT: estimating red-noise spectra directly from unevenly spaced paleoclimatic time series. Comput Geosci 28: 421-426.
89. Schulz R, Harms FJ, Felder M (2002) Die Forschungsbohrung Messel 2001: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüsselung der Genese einer Ölschieferlagerstätte. Z Angew Geol 4: 9-17.
90. Schwarzbach M (1968) Das Klima des rheinischen Tertiärs. Z Dtsch Geol Ges 118: 33-68.
91. Sluijs A, Pross J, Brinkhuis H (2005) From greenhouse to icehouse; organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts as paleoenvironmental indicators in the Paleogene. Earth-Sci Rev 68: 281-315.
92. Sluijs A, Schouten S, Donders HD, Schoon PL, Röhl U, Reichart GJ, Sangiorgi F, Kim JH, Sinninghe Damsté JS, Brinkhuis H (2009) Warm and wet conditions in the Arctic region during Eocene Thermal Maximum 2. Nat Geosci 2: 777-780. doi: 10. 1038/NGEO668.
93. Spicer RA, Greer AG (1986) Plant taphonomy in fluvial and lacustrine systems. In: Gastaldo RA (ed) Land plants: notes for a short course. University of Tennessee Department of Geological Sciences, Studies in Geology, vol 15, pp 10-26.
94. Stebich M, Mingram J, Han J, Liu J (2009) Late Pleistocene spread of (cool-)temperate forests in Northeast China and climate changes synchronous with the North Atlantic region. Global Planet Change 65: 56-70.
95. Stuchlik E (1994) Neogene pollen flora of Central Europe. Part 1. Acta Palaeobotan Suppl 1: 5-56.
96. Tanaka N, Setoguchi H, Murata J (1997) Phylogeny of the family Hydrocharitaceae inferred from rbcL and matK gene sequence data. J Plant Res 110: 329-337.
97. Taylor GH, Teichmüller M, Davis A, Diessel CFK, Littke R, Robert P (1998) Organic petrology. Borntraeger, Berlin.
98. ter Braak CJF, Looman CWN (1995) Regression. In: Jongman RHG, ter Braak CJF, Tongeren OFR (eds) Data analysis in community and landscape ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
99. Thiele-Pfeiffer H (1980) Die miozäne Mikroflora aus dem Braunkohlentagebau Oder bei Wackersdorf/Oberpfalz. Palaeontogr Abt B 174: 95-224.
100. Thiele-Pfeiffer H (1988) Die Mikroflora aus dem mitteleozänen Ölschiefer von Messel bei Darmstadt. Palaeontogr Abt B 211: 1-86.
101. Thomson PW, Pflug H (1953) Pollen und Sporen des mitteleuropäischen Tertiärs. Gesamtübersicht über die stratigraphisch und paläontologisch wichtigen Formen. Palaeontogr Abt B 94: 1-138.
102. Torrence C, Compo GP (1998) A practical guide to wavelet analysis. B Am Meteorol Soc 79: 61-78.
103. Trauth MH, Deino AL, Berner AGN, Strecker MR (2003) East African climate change and orbital forcing during the last 175 kyr BP. Earth Planet Sci Lett 206: 297-313.
104. Traverse A (1992) Organic fluvial sediment: palynomorphs and ′palynodebris′ in the lower Trinity River, Texas. Ann Mo Bot Gard 79: 110-125.
105. Turney CSM, Kershaw AP, Clemens SC, Branch N, Moss PT, Fifiled LK (2004) Millenial and orbital variations of El Niño/Southern Oscillation and high-latitude climate in the last glacial period. Nature 428: 306-310.
106. Tyson RV (1995) Sedimentary organic matter. Chapman & Hall, London.
107. Varadi F, Runnegar B, Ghil M (2003) Successive refinements in long-term integrations of planetary orbits. Astrophys J 592: 620-630.
108. Wanamaker AD, Kreutz KJ, Schöne BR, Maasch KA, Pershing AJ, Borns HW, Introne DS, Feindel S (2009) A late Holocene paleo-productivity record in the western Gulf of Maine, USA, inferred from growth histories of the long-lived ocean quahog (Artica islandica). Int J Earth Sci 98: 19-29.
109. Warnaar J, Bijl PK, Huber M, Sloan L, Brinkhuis H, Röhl U, Sriver R, Visscher H (2009) Orbitally forced climate changes in the Tasman sector during the Middle Eocene. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 280: 361-370.
110. Weber J, Hofmann U (1982) Kernbohrungen in der eozänen Fossillagerstätte Grube Messel bei Darmstadt. Geol Abh Hessen 83: 1-58.
111. Westerhold T, Röhl U, Laskar J, Bowles J, Raffi I, Lourens LJ, Zachos JC (2007) On the duration of magnetochrons C24r and C25n and the timing of early Eocene global warming events: implications from the Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 Walvis Ridge depth transect. Paleoceanography, 22, PA2201. doi: 10. 1029/2006PA001322.
112. Westerhold T, Röhl U, Raffi I, Fornaciari E, Monechi S, Reale V, Bowles J, Evans HF (2008) Astronomical calibration of the Paleocene time. Palaeogeogr Palaeocl 257: 377-403.
113. Wetzel RG (1983) Limnology. Saunders College Publications, Philadelphia.
114. Wilde V (1989) Untersuchungen zur Systematik der Blattreste aus dem Mitteleozän der Grube Messel bei Darmstadt (Hessen, Deutschland). Cour Forsch Senckenberg 115: 1-123.
115. Wilde V (2004) Aktuelle Übersicht zur Flora aus dem mitteleozänen "Ölschiefer" der Grube Messel bei Darmstadt (Hessen, Deutschland). Cour For Senckenbg 252: 109-114.
116. Wilde V, Frankenhäuser F, Lutz H (1993) Algenreste aus den mitteleozänen Sedimenten des Eckfelder Maares bei Manderscheid in der Eifel. Mainzer Naturwiss Arch 31: 127-148.
117. Willis KJ, Kleczkowski A, Crowhurst SJ (1999) 124000-year periodicity in terrestrial vegetation change during the late Pliocene epoch. Nature 397: 685-688.
118. Wing SL, Harrington GJ, Bowen GJ, Koch PL (2003) Floral change during the initial eocene thermal maximum in the powder river bank, Wyoming. Geol S Am S 369: 425-440.
119. Wing SL, Harrington GJ, Smith FA, Bloch JI, Boyer DM, Freeman KH (2005) Transient floral change and rapid global warming at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary. Science 310: 993-996.
120. Zachos J, Pagani M, Sloan L, Thomas E, Billups K (2001) Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science 292: 686-693.
121. Zippi P (1998) Freshwater algae from the Mattagami Formation (Albian), Ontario: Paleoecology, botanical affinities, and systematic taxonomy. Micropaleontology Suppl 1(44): 1-78.