Sensitivity of seawater oxygen isotopes to climatic and tectonic boundary conditions in an early Paleogene simulation with GISS ModelE-R

Paleoceanography

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2011, Pages

  Roberts, Christopher D ^a,b   Legrande, Allegra N ^c   Tripati, Aradhna K ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^b MET OFFICE   (United Kingdom)

^c NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BOUNDARY CONDITION; CARBONATE; CLIMATE EFFECT; GENERAL CIRCULATION MODEL; ICE FIELD; ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION; OXYGEN ISOTOPE; PALEOCEANOGRAPHY; PALEOGENE; SEA SURFACE TEMPERATURE; SEAWATER; SPATIAL ANALYSIS; TECTONICS; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS;

EID: 80054758803     PISSN: 08838305     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2010PA002025     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Abbot, D. S., and E. Tziperman (2008), Sea ice, high-latitude convection, and equable climates, Geophys. Res. Lett., L03702, doi:10.1029/2007GL032286. (Pubitemid 351492937)
2. Abbot, D. S., M. Huber, G. Bousquet, and C. C. Walker (2009), High-CO2 cloud radiative forcing feedback over both land and ocean in a global climate model, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L05702, doi:10.1029/2008GL036703.
3. Akhmetiev, M. A., and V. N. Beniamovski (2009), Paleogene floral assemblages around epicontinental seas and straits in Northern Central Eurasia: Proxies for climatic and paleogeographic evolution, Geol. Acta, 7(1-2), 297-309.
4. Aleinov, I., and G. A. Schmidt (2006), Water isotopes in the GISS ModelE land surface scheme, Global Planet. Change, 51(1-2), 108-120, doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2005.12.010.
5. Barron, E., and W. Peterson (1991), The Cenozoic ocean circulation based on ocean General Circulation Model results, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 83(1-3), 1-28, doi:10.1016/0031-0182(91)90073-Z.
6. Bartdorff, O., K. Wallmann, M. Latif, and V. Semenov (2008), Phanero-zoic evolution of atmospheric methane, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 22, GB1008, doi:10.1029/2007GB002985. (Pubitemid 351850856)
7. Beerling, D., R. A. Berner, F. T. Mackenzie, M. B. Harfoot, and J. A. Pyle (2009), Methane and the CH4-related greenhouse effect over the past 400 million years, Am. J. Sci., 309, 97-113, doi:10.2475/02.2009.01.
8. Bemis, B. E., H. J. Spero, J. Bijma, and D. W. Lea (1998), Reevaluation of the oxygen isotopic composition of planktonic foraminifera: Experimental results and revised paleotemperature equations, Paleoceanography, 13(2), 150-160, doi:10.1029/98PA00070.
9. Bice, K. L., and J. Marotzke (2002), Could changing ocean circulation have destabilized methane hydrate at the Paleocene/Eocene boundary?, Paleoceanography, 17(2), 1018, doi:10.1029/2001PA000678.
10. Bice, K. L., E. J. Barron, and W. H. Peterson (1998), Reconstruction of realistic Early Eocene paleobathymetry and ocean GCM sensitivity to specified basin configuration, in Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Climate Reconstructions, edited by T. J. Crowley and K. C. Burke, pp. 327-350, Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
11. Bice, K., C. Scotese, D. Seidov, and E. Barron (2000), Quantifying the role of geographic change in Cenozoic ocean heat transport using uncoupled atmosphere and ocean models, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 161, 295-310, doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00072-9.
12. Bigg, G. R., and E. J. Rohling (2000), An oxygen isotope data set for marine water, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 8527-8535, doi:10.1029/2000JC900005.
13. Bijl, P. K., S. Schouten, A. Sluijs, G. J. Reichart, J. C. Zachos, and H. Brinkhuis (2009), Early Palaeogene temperature evolution of the southwest Pacific Ocean, Nature, 461, 776-779, doi:10.1038/nature08399.
14. Billups, K., and D. P. Schrag (2003), Application of benthic foraminiferal Mg/Ca ratios to questions of Cenozoic climate change, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 209(1-2), 181-195, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00067-0. (Pubitemid 36413317)
15. Brinkhuis, H., et al. (2006), Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean, Nature, 441, 606-609, doi:10.1038/nature04692. (Pubitemid 43927288)
16. Burgess, C. E., P. N. Pearson, C. H. Lear, H. E. G. Morgans, L. Handley, R. D. Pancost, and S. Schouten (2008), Middle Eocene climate cyclicity in the southern Pacific: Implications for global ice volume, Geology, 36(8), 651-654, doi:10.1130/G24762A.1.
17. Craig, H., and L. I. Gordon (1965), Deuterium and oxygen 18 variations in the ocean and the marine atmosphere, in Stable Isotopes in Oceanographic Studies and Paleotemperatures, edited by E. Tongiorgi, pp. 9-130, Lab. di Geol. Nucl., C. N. R., Pisa, Italy.
18. Crowley, T. J. (1998), Significance of tectonic boundary conditions for paleoclimate simulations, in Tectonic Boundary Conditions for Climate Reconstructions, edited by T. J. Crowley and K. C. Burke, pp. 3-17, Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
19. Eagles, G., R. Livermore, and P. Morris (2006), Small basins in the Scotia Sea: The Eocene Drake Passage gateway, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 242, 343-353, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.11.060. (Pubitemid 43216633)
20. Emiliani, C. (1955), Pleistocene temperatures, J. Geol., 63(6), 538-578, doi:10.1086/626295.
21. Enderton, D., and J. Marshall (2009), Explorations of atmosphere-ocean-ice climates on an aquaplanet and their meridional energy transports, J. Atmos. Sci., 66(6), 1593-1611, doi:10.1175/2008JAS2680.1.
22. Fraedrich, K., A. Kleidon, and F. Lunkeit (1999), A green planet versus a desert world: Estimating the effect of vegetation extremes on the atmosphere, J. Clim., 12(10), 3156-3163, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1999) 012〈3156: AGPVAD〉2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 30047391)
23. Fricke, H. C., and S. L. Wing (2004), Oxygen isotope and paleobotanical estimates of temperature and d18O-latitude gradients over North America during the early Eocene, Am. J. Sci., 304(7), 612-635, doi:10.2475/ajs.304.7.612. (Pubitemid 39632021)
24. Gent, P., and J. McWilliams (1990), Isopycnal mixing in ocean circulation models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20(1), 150-155, doi:10.1175/1520-0485 (1990)020〈0150:IMIOCM〉2.0.CO;2.
25. Gent, P., J. Willebrand, T. McDougall, and J. McWilliams (1995), Parameterizing eddy-induced tracer transports in ocean circulation models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25(4), 463-474, doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1995) 025〈0463:PEITTI〉2.0.CO;2.
26. Greenwood, D. R., and S. L. Wing (1995), Eocene continental climates and latitudinal temperature-gradients, Geology, 23(11), 1044-1048, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023〈1044:ECCALT〉2.3.CO;2. (Pubitemid 26459221)
27. Griffies, S. (1998), The Gent-McWilliams skew flux, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 28(5), 831-841, doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1998)028〈0831:TGMSF〉2.0. CO;2.
28. Hansen, J., et al. (2007), Climate simulations for 1880-2003 with GISS modele, Clim. Dyn., 29, 661-696, doi:10.1007/s00382-007-0255-8. (Pubitemid 47543430)
29. Hay, W. W., A. Migdisov, A. N. Balukhovsky, C. N. Wold, S. Flogel, and E. Soding (2006), Evaporites and the salinity of the ocean during the Phanerozoic: Implications for climate, ocean circulation and life, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol, 240(1-2), 3-46, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.03.044. (Pubitemid 44380262)
30. Head, J. J., J. I. Bloch, A. K. Hastings, J. R. Bourque, E. A. Cadena, F. A. Herrera, P. D. Polly, and C. A. Jaramillo (2009), Giant boid snake from the Palaeocene neotropics reveals hotter past equatorial temperatures, Nature, 457, 715-717, doi:10.1038/nature07671.
31. Hollis, C. J., et al. (2009), Tropical sea temperatures in the high-latitude South Pacific during the Eocene, Geology, 37(2), 99-102, doi:10.1130/G25200A.1.
32. Huber, M., and L. C. Sloan (1999), Warm climate transitions: A general circulation modeling study of the Late Paleocene thermal maximum (∼56 Ma), J. Geophys. Res., 104(D14), 16,633-16,655, doi:10.1029/1999JD900272.
33. Huber, M., and L. C. Sloan (2001), Heat transport, deep waters, and thermal gradients: Coupled simulation of an Eocene Greenhouse Climate, Geophys. Res. Lett, 28(18), 3481-3484, doi:10.1029/2001GL012943. (Pubitemid 32989789)
34. Jahren, A. H. (2007), The Arctic Forest of the Middle Eocene, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 35, 509-540, doi:10.1146/annurev.earth.35.031306. 140125. (Pubitemid 46930402)
35. Kim, S.-T., and J. R. O'Neil (1997), Equilibrium and non-equilibrium oxygen isotope effects in synthetic carbonates, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 61, 3461-3475, doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(97)00169-5.
36. Korty, R. L., K. A. Emanuel, and J. R. Scott (2008), Tropical cyclone-induced upper-ocean mixing and climate: Application to equable climates, J. Clim., 21(4), 638-654, doi:10.1175/2007JCLI1659.1. (Pubitemid 351395616)
37. Large, W., J. McWilliams, and S. Doney (1994), Oceanic vertical mixing: A review and a model with a nonlocal boundary layer parameterization, Rev. Geophys., 32(4), 363-404, doi:10.1029/94RG01872.
38. Laskar, J., P. Robutel, F. Joutel, M. Gastineau, A. C. M. Correia, and B. Levrard (2004), A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth, Astron. Astrophys., 428(1), 261-285, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20041335.
39. Lear, C. H., H. Elderfield, and P. A. Wilson (2000), Cenozoic deep-sea temperatures and global ice volumes from Mg/Ca in benthic foraminiferal calcite, Science, 287, 269-272, doi:10.1126/science.287.5451.269. (Pubitemid 30046746)
40. Lee, S., S. Feldstein, D. Pollard, and T. White (2011), Do planetary wave dynamics contribute to equable climates?, J. Clim., 24, 2391-2404, doi:10.1175/2011JCLI3825.1.
41. LeGrande, A. N., and G. A. Schmidt (2006), Global gridded data set of the oxygen isotopic composition in seawater, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L12604, doi:10.1029/2006GL026011. (Pubitemid 44687713)
42. Levitus, S., R. Burgett, and T. Boyer (1994), World Ocean Atlas 1994, vol. 3, Salinity, NOAA Atlas NESDIS, vol. 3, 111 pp., NOAA, Silver Spring, Md.
43. Liu, J., G. Schmidt, D. Martinson, D. Rind, G. Russell, and X. Yuan (2003), Sensitivity of sea ice to physical parameterizations in the GISS global climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 108(C2), 3053, doi:10.1029/2001JC001167.
44. Lunt, D. J., A. M. Haywood, G. A. Schmidt, U. Salzmann, P. J. Valdes, and H. J. Dowsett (2010), Earth system sensitivity inferred from Pliocene modelling and data, Nat. Geosci., 3, 60-64, doi:10.1038/ngeo706.
45. Markwick, P. J. (1994), "Equability," continentality, and Tertiary "climate": The crocodilian perspective, Geology, 22(7), 613-616, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1994)022〈0613:ECATCT〉2.3.CO;2. (Pubitemid 24428689)
46. Markwick, P. J. (1998), Fossil crocodilians as indicators of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic climates: Implications for using palaeontological data in reconstructing palaeoclimate, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 137, 205-271, doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(97)00108-9. (Pubitemid 28190053)
47. Marshall, J., D. Ferreira, M. J. Campin, and D. Enderton (2007), Mean climate and variability of the atmosphere and ocean on an aquaplanet, J. Atmos. Sci., 64(12), 4270-4286, doi:10.1175/2007JAS2226.1.
48. Matthews, E. (1984), Prescription of land-surface boundary conditions in GISS GCM II: A simple method based on fine-resolution data bases, Tech. Memo 86096, 20 pp., NASA Goddard Space Flight Cent. Inst. for Space Stud., New York.
49. McConnaughey, T. (1989a), 13 C and 18 O isotopic disequilibrium in biological carbonates: I. Patterns, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53(1), 151-162, doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89)90282-2.
50. McConnaughey, T. (1989b), 13 C and 18 O isotopic disequilibrium in biological carbonates: II. In vitrosimulation of kinetic isotope effects, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53(1), 163-171, doi:10.1016/0016-7037(89) 90283-4.
51. Pagani, M., J. C. Zachos, K. H. Freeman, B. Tipple, and S. Bohaty (2005), Marked decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations during the Paleogene, Science, 309, 600-603, doi:10.1126/science.1110063. (Pubitemid 41033641)
52. Pearson, P. N., and M. R. Palmer (2000), Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years, Nature, 406, 695-699, doi:10.1038/35021000.
53. Pearson, P. N., N. J. Shackleton, and M. A. Hall (1993), Stable isotope paleoecology of middle Eocene planktonic foraminifera and multi-species isotope stratigraphy, DSDP Site 523, South Atlantic, J. Foraminiferal Res., 23(2), 123-140, doi:10.2113/gsjfr.23.2.123.
54. Pearson, P. N., P. W. Ditchfield, J. Singano, K. G. Harcourt-Brown, C. J. Nicholas, R. K. Olsson, N. J. Shackleton, and M. A. Hall (2001), Warm tropical sea surface temperatures in the Late Cretaceous and Eocene epochs, Nature, 413, 481-487, doi:10.1038/35097000. (Pubitemid 32943553)
55. Pearson, P. N., B. E. Van Dongen, C. J. Nicholas, R. D. Pancost, S. Schouten, J. M. Singano, and B. S. Wade (2007). Stable warm tropical climate through the Eocene Epoch, Geology 35(3), 211-214, doi:10.1130/G23175A.1. (Pubitemid 46437823)
56. Randall, D., R. Wood, and S. Bony (2007), Climate models and their evaluation, in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by S. Solomon et al., chap. 8, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K.
57. Roberts, C. D., A. N. LeGrande, and A. K. Tripati (2009), Climate sensitivity to Arctic seaway restriction during the early Paleogene, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, 286(3-4), 576-585, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.07.026.
58. Roche, D. M., Y. Donnadieu, E. Puceat, and D. Paillard (2006), Effect of changes in d 1 O content of the surface ocean on estimated sea surface temperatures in past warm climate, Paleoceanography, 21, PA2023, doi:10.1029/2005PA001220. (Pubitemid 44794635)
59. Rogl, F. (1999), Mediterranean and Paratethys. Facts and hypotheses of an Oligocene to Miocene paleogeography (short overview), Geol. Carpathica, 50(4), 339-349. (Pubitemid 30028524)
60. Royer, D. (2006), CO2-forced climate thresholds during the Phanerozoic, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 70, 5665-5675, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2005. 11.031. (Pubitemid 44712457)
61. Rull, V. (1999), Palaeoflorisitc and palaeovegetational changes across the Paleocene-Eocene boundary in northern South America, Rev. Palaeobot. Palynol, 107, 83-95, doi:10.1016/S0034-6667(99)00014-7. (Pubitemid 29463875)
62. Russell, G. L., J. R. Miller, and D. Rind (1995), A coupled atmosphere-ocean model for transient climate change studies, Atmos. Ocean, 33(4), 683-730. (Pubitemid 126071228)
63. Russell, G. L., V. Gornitz, and J. Miller (2000), Regional sea level changes projected by the NASA/GISS atmosphere-ocean model, Clim. Dyn., 16, 789-797, doi:10.1007/s003820000090.
64. Scher, H. D., and E. E. Martin (2006), Timing and Climatic consequences of the opening of Drake Passage, Science, 312(5772), 428-430, doi:10.1126/science.1120044.
65. Schmidt, G. A. (1999), Forward modeling of carbonate proxy data from planktonic foraminifera using oxygen isotope tracers in a global ocean model, Paleoceanography, 14, 482-497, doi:10.1029/1999PA900025. (Pubitemid 30014725)
66. Schmidt, G. A., and S. Mulitza (2002), Global calibration of ecological models for planktic foraminifera from coretop carbonate oxygen-18, Mar. Micropaleontol, 44, 125-140, doi:10.1016/S0377-8398(01) 00041-X. (Pubitemid 34608962)
67. Schmidt, G. A., G. R. Bigg, and E. J. Rohling (1999), Global Seawater Oxygen-18 Database, http://data.giss.nasa.gov/o18data/, Goddard Inst. for Space Stud., New York.
68. Schmidt, G., C. Bitz, U. Mikolajewicz, and L. Tremblay (2004), Ice-ocean boundary conditions for coupled models, Ocean Modell, 7(1-2), 59-74, doi:10.1016/S1463-5003(03)00030-1. (Pubitemid 38300708)
69. Schmidt, G. A., et al. (2006), Present-day atmospheric simulations using GISS modele: Comparison to in situ, satellite, and reanalysis data, J. Clim., 19(2), 153-192, doi:10.1175/JCLI3612.1.
70. Schmidt, G. A., A. N. LeGrande, and G. Hoffmann (2007), Water isotope expressions of intrinsic and forced variability in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10103, doi:10.1029/2006JD007781. (Pubitemid 47201688)
71. Schrag, D. P. (1999), Effects of diagenesis on the isotopic record of late Paleogene tropical sea surface temperatures, Chem. Geol, 161(1-3), 215-224, doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(99)00088-1. (Pubitemid 30130531)
72. Scotese, C. R., M. I. Ross, and A. Schettino (1998), Plate tectonic reconstruction and animation, Eos Trans. AGU, 79, 334.
73. Sewall, J. O., L. C. Sloan, M. Huber, and S. Wing (2000), Climate sensitivity to changes in land surface characteristics, Global Planet. Change, 26(4), 445-465, doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00056-4. (Pubitemid 32010435)
74. Sexton, P. F., P. A. Wilson, and P. N. Pearson (2006), Microstructural and geochemical perspectives on planktic foraminiferal preservation: 'Glassy' versus 'Frosty', Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 7, Q12P19, doi:10.1029/ 2006GC001291.
75. Shackleton, N. J., and N. D. Opdyke (1977), Oxygen isotope and paleo-magnetic evidence for early Northern Hemisphere glaciation, Nature, 270, 216-219, doi:10.1038/270216a0.
76. Shukla, J., and Y. Mintz (1982), Influence of land-surface evapotranspi-ration on the Earth's climate, Science, 215, 1498-1501, doi:10.1126/science.215.4539.1498. (Pubitemid 13259386)
77. Sloan, L. C, J. C. G. Walker, T. C. Moore, D. K. Rea, and J. C. Zachos (1992), Possible methane?induced polar warming in the early Eocene, Nature, 357, 320-322, doi:10.1038/357320a0.
78. Sloan, L. C, M. Huber, and A. Ewing (1999), Polar Stratospheric Cloud Forcing in a Greenhouse World: Climate Modeling Sensitivity Study, in Reconstructing Ocean History: A Window into the Future, edited by F. Abrantes and A. Mix, pp. 273-293, Kluwer Acad., New York.
79. Sluijs, A., et al. (2006), Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum, Nature, 441, 610-613, doi:10.1038/nature04668. (Pubitemid 43927289)
80. Smith, R. S., C. Dubois, and J. Marotzke (2006), Global climate and ocean circulation on an aquaplanet ocean-atmosphere general circulation model, J. Clim., 19(18), 4719-4737, doi:10.1175/JCLI3874.1. (Pubitemid 44541878)
81. Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. Averyt, M. Tignor, and H. Miller (Eds.) (2007), Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis: Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K.
82. Spero, H. J., J. Bijma, D. W. Lea, and B. E. Bemis (1997), Effect of sea-water carbonate concentration on foraminiferal carbon and oxygen isotopes, Nature, 390, 497-500, doi:10.1038/37333. (Pubitemid 28013126)
83. Stone, P. (1978), Constraints on dynamical transports of energy on a spherical planet, Dyn. Atmos. Oceans, 2, 123-139, doi:10.1016/0377-0265(78) 90006-4.
84. Stroeve, J., M. M. Holland, W. Meier, T. Scambos, and M. Serreze (2007), Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L09501, doi:10.1029/2007GL029703. (Pubitemid 47008153)
85. Sud, Y. C, J. Shukla, and Y. Mintz (1988), Influence of land surface roughness on atmospheric circulation and precipitation: A sensitivity study with a general circulation model, J. Appl. Meteorol, 27(9), 1036-1054, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1988)027〈1036:IOLSRO〉2.0. CO;2.
86. Tindall, J., R. Flecker, P. Valdes, D. N. Schmidt, P. Markwick, and J. Harris (2010), Modelling the oxygen isotope distribution of ancient seawater using a coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM: Implications for reconstructing early Eocene climate, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 292, 265-273, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009. 12.049.
87. Toggweiler, J. R., and H. Bjornsson (2000), Drake Passage and palaeocli-mate, J. Quat. Sci., 15(4), 319-328, doi:10.1002/1099-1417(200005) 15:4〈319::AID-JQS545〉3.0.CO;2-C.
88. Tripati, A. K., and H. Elderfield (2004), Abrupt hydrographic changes in the equatorial Pacific and subtropical Atlantic from foraminiferal Mg/Ca indicate greenhouse origin for the thermal maximum at the Paleocene?Eocene Boundary, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 5, Q02006, doi:10.1029/2003GC000631.
89. Tripati, A. K., and H. Elderfield (2005), Deep-sea temperature and circulation changes at the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum, Science, 308, 1894-1898, doi:10.1126/science.1109202. (Pubitemid 40941870)
90. Tripati, A. K., J. Zachos, L. Marincovich, and K. Bice (2001), Late Paleo-cene Arctic coastal climate inferred from molluscan stable and radiogenic isotope ratios, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol, 170, 101-113, doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00230-9. (Pubitemid 32579424)
91. Tripati, A. K., M. L. Delaney, J. C. Zachos, L. D. Anderson, D. C. Kelly, and H. Elderfield (2003), Tropical sea-surface temperature reconstruction for the early Paleogene using Mg/Ca ratios of planktonic forami-nifera, Paleoceanography, 18(4), 1101, doi:10.1029/2003PA000937.
92. Utescher, T., and V. Mosbrugger (2007), Eocene vegetation patterns reconstructed from plant diversity-A global perspective, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol, 247, 243-271, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2006. 10.022. (Pubitemid 46517603)
93. Visbeck, M., J. Marshall, T. Haine, and M. Spall (1997), Specification of eddy transfer coefficients in coarse-resolution ocean circulation models, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 27(3), 381-402, doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1997) 027〈0381:SOETCI〉2.0.CO;2.
94. Wefer, G., and W. H. Berger (1991), Isotope paleontology-Growth and composition of extant calcareous species, Mar. Geol, 100(1-4), 207-248, doi:10.1016/0025-3227(91)90234-U.
95. Weller, P., and R. Stein (2008), Paleogene biomarker records from the central Arctic Ocean (Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 302): Organic carbon sources, anoxia, and sea surface temperature, Paleoceano-graphy, 23, PA1S17, doi:10.1029/2007PA001472. (Pubitemid 351850846)
96. Wilf, P. (2000), Late Paleocene-Early Eocene climate changes in southwestern Wyoming: Paleobotanical analysis, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 292-307, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112〈292:LPECCI〉2.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 32828201)
97. Wilke, I., H. Meggers, and T. Bickert (2009), Depth habitats and seasonal distributions of recent planktic foraminifers in the Canary Islands region (29°N) based on oxygen isotopes, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 56(1), 89-106, doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2008.08.001.
98. Wing, S. L. (1998a), Late Paleocene-early Eocene floral and climatic change in the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming, in Late Paleocene-early Eocene Biotic and Climatic Events, edited by M.-P. Aubry, W. A. Berggren, and S. Lucas, pp. 371-391, Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
99. Wing, S. L. (1998b),Tertiary vegetation of North America as a context for mammalian evolution, in Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America. Terrestrial Carnivores, Ungulates, and Ungulatelike Mammals, vol. 1, edited by C. M. Janis, K. M. Scott, and L. L. Jacobs, pp. 37-60, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K.
100. Wolfe, J. A. (1994), Tertiary climatic changes at middle latitudes of western North-America, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 108, 195-205, doi:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90233-X. (Pubitemid 24427654)
101. Wunsch, C. (2005), The total meridional heat flux and its oceanic and atmospheric partition, J. Clim., 18(21), 4374-4380, doi:10.1175/JCLI3539.1. (Pubitemid 41805477)
102. Zachos, J. C., L. D. Stott, and K. C. Lohmann (1994), Evolution of early Cenozoic marine temperatures, Paleoceanography, 9(2), 353-387, doi:10.1029/93PA03266. (Pubitemid 24427657)
103. Zachos, J. C., M. Pagani, L. Sloan, E. Thomas, and K. Billups (2001), Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present, Science, 292, 686-693, doi:10.1126/science.1059412. (Pubitemid 32385533)
104. Zachos, J. C., M. W. Wara, S. Bohaty, M. L. Delaney, M. R. Petrizzo, A. Brill, T. J. Bralower, and I. Premoli-Silva (2003), A transient rise in tropical sea surface temperature during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, Science, 302, 1551-1554, doi:10.1126/science.1090110. (Pubitemid 37475695)
105. Zachos, J. C., S. Schouten, S. Bohaty, T. Quattlebaum, A. Sluijs, H. Brinkhuis, S. J. Gibbs, and T. J. Bralower (2006), Extreme warming of mid-latitude coastal ocean during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum: Inferences from TEX86 and isotope data, Geology, 34(9), 737-740, doi:10.1130/G22522.1. (Pubitemid 44430756)
106. Zachos, J. C., G. Dickens, and R. E. Zeebe (2008), An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics, Nature, 451, 279-283, doi:10.1038/nature06588.
107. Zeebe, R. E. (1999), An explanation of the effect of seawater carbonate concentration on foraminiferal oxygen isotopes, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 63(13-14), 2001-2007, doi:10.1016/S0016-7037(99)00091-5. (Pubitemid 30005549)
108. Zeebe, R. E. (2001), Seawater pH and isotopic paleotemperatures of Cretaceous oceans, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 170, 49-57, doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00226-7. (Pubitemid 32579421)
109. Zeebe, R. E. (2007), An expression for the overall oxygen isotope frac-tionation between the sum of dissolved inorganic carbon and water, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 8, Q09002, doi:10.1029/2007GC001663.
110. Zhang, J., and D. Rothrock (2000), Modeling Arctic sea ice with an efficient plastic solution, J. Geophys. Res., 105(C2), 3325-3338, doi:10.1029/1999JC900320.
111. Zhang, X., and J. E. Walsh (2006), Toward a seasonally ice-covered Arctic Ocean: Scenarios from the IPCC AR4 model simulations, J. Clim., 19, 1730-1747, doi:10.1175/JCLI3767.1. (Pubitemid 43805483)
112. Zhou, J., C. J. Poulsen, D. Pollard, and T. S. White (2008), Simulation of modern and middle Cretaceous marine d18O with an ocean-atmosphere general circulation model, Paleoceanography, 23, PA3223, doi:10.1029/2008PA001596.