The Seduction of Unreason: The Intellectual Romance with Fascism from Nietzsche to Postmodernism

The Seduction of Unreason: The Intellectual Romance with Fascism from Nietzsche to Postmodernism

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 1-375

  Wolin, Richard ^a  

^a NONE

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References (543)

1. Rivarol, cited in Jacques Godechot, The Counter-Revolution: Doctrine and Action, 1789-1804, trans. S. Attanasio (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981), 33.
2. Isaiah Berlin, "Counter-Enlightenment," in Against the Current (New York: Viking. 1980), 1-24.
3. For an attempt to do justice to the complexities and ambivalences of Berlin's relationship to the Counter-Enlightenment, see Graeme Garrard, "The Counter-Enlightenment Liberalism of Isaiah Berlin," Journal of Political Ideologies 2(3) (1997), 281-296.
4. Goebbels, cited in Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship (Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart, 1970), 10.
5. Darrin MacMahon, Enemies of the Enlightenment: the French Counter- Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 12.
6. Maistre, Considerations on France, trans. R. Lebrun (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), 97.
7. "Translator's Preface," François Dosse, History of Structuralism, vol. I, trans. D. Glassman (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), xiv.
8. Lévi-Strauss, "Entretien avec Jean-Marie Benoist," Le Monde January 21-22, 1979, 14 (emphasis added).
9. Lévi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 247 (emphasis added).
10. For an excellent exploration and critique of these elements of Lévi- Strauss's oeuvre, see Tzvetan Todorov, On Human Diversity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 60-89.
11. For a fuller discussion of this problem, see chapter 4, "Designer Fascism."
12. J. G. Herder on Social and Political Culture, ed. F. Barnard (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 184, 186.
13. For background, see Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut, French Philosophy of the Sixties, trans. M. Cattani (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989).
14. See, for example, Julian Bourg, Forbidden to Forbid: Ethics in France, 1968-81 (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 2001)
15. Michael Christofferson, French Intellectuals Against the Left: The Antitotalitarian Movement of the 1970s (New York: Berghahn Books, 2004).
16. See Thomas Pavel, The Feud of Language: A History of Structuralist Thought (Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1992).
17. Cited in Jeffrey Mehlman, Legacies of Anti-Semitism in France (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1982), 108.
18. On this point, see Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
19. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, trans. R. Hurley (New York: Pantheon, 1990), 159.
20. Jean Cohen, "Democracy, Difference, and the Right to Privacy," in Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political, ed. S. Benhabib (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 188.
21. Christopher Lasch, The Culture of Narcissism (New York: Norton, 1978)
22. Richard Sennett, The Fall of Public Man (New York: Norton, 1992).
23. Dosse, History of Structuralism, vol. I, xx.
24. See Political Excursus II, "Designer Fascism: On the Ideology of the French New Right," in part II of this book.
25. For a good example, see Susan Rowland, Jung: A Feminist Revision (New York: Routledge, 2002).
26. For more information about these two approaches, see Simon During, The Cultural Studies Reader (New York: Routledge, 1993)
27. Catherine Gallagher and Stephen Greenblatt, Practicing New Historicism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001).
28. Jean Baudrillard, "L'Esprit du terrorisme," Le Monde, November 3, 2001
29. Baudrillard, The Spirit of Terrorism and Requiem for the Twin Towers, trans. C. Turner (London: Verso, 2002).
30. Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche, ed. and trans. C. Middleton (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1996), 305.
31. Mussolini, Opera omnia (Florence: La Fireze, 1951-63), 17: 267-269.
32. Selected Letters of Friedrich Nietzsche, 337.
33. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. W. Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1967), 612.
34. Georg Lukács, The Destruction of Reason, trans. P. Palmer (Atlantic Heights, N. J.: Humanities Press, 1981).
35. Nietzsche, The Twilight of the Idols, or How to Philosophize with a Hammer, trans. R. Hollingdale (New York: Penguin, 1968).
36. Nietzsche, The Genealogy of Morals, trans. W. Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage, 1967), III, 12.
37. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 272.
38. Nietzsche, The Gay Science, trans. W. Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1974), 232.
39. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 419.
40. Descombes, Modern French Philosophy, trans. By L. Fox and J. Harding (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980), 10.
41. Nietzsche, Twilight of the Idols, 31.
42. Foucault, letter to Pierre Klossowski, July 3, 1969, in Cahiers pour un temps (Paris: Centre Pompidou, 1985), 85-88.
43. Klossowski, Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle, xix.
44. Alexander Nehamas, Nietzsche: Life as Literature (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985), 8.
45. See Nietzsche, "Truth and Lies in an Extra-Moral Sense," in Philosophy and Truth: Selections from Nietzsche's Notebooks of the Early 1870s, ed. D. Brazeale (Atlantic Heights, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1979), 84: "Truths are illusions which we have forgotten are illusions."
46. Nehamas, Nietzsche, 9.
47. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 427.
48. See M. S. Silk and J. P. Stern, Nietzsche on Tragedy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
49. For a properly skeptical view of the relationship between Nietzsche and postmodernism, see Robert Solomon, "Nietzsche, Postmodernism, and Resentment," in Nietzsche and Postmodernism: Essays Pro and Contra, ed. C. Koelb (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), 267-293.
50. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 464.
51. Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, trans. W. Kaufmann and R. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage, 1967), 328.
52. Peter Berkowitz, Nietzsche: The Ethics of an Immoralist (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 262.
53. John Richardson, Nietzsche's System (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 290.
54. Nietzsche, The Gay Science, para. 344.
55. Selected Letters, 221.
56. Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, trans. R. Hollingdale (New York: Penguin, 1969), 299.
57. Nietzsche, The Gay Science, para. 341.
58. Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 169.
59. Karl Löwith, Nietzsche's Philosophy of the Eternal Recurrence of the Same, trans. H. Lomax (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997).
60. See Berkowitz, Nietzsche, 2.
61. Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 75-77.
62. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 458-459.
63. Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, 326-327.
64. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 465.
65. Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals, 76 (translation altered).
66. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1966), 87.
67. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, 504.
68. Nietzsche, Ecce Homo (quoted in Nolte, Nietzsche u. Nietzscheanism, 193-194); emphasis added.
69. Déat, Pensée allemande et pensée française (Paris: 1944), 97-98, cited in Zeev Sternhell
70. "Fascist Ideology," in Fascism: A Reader's Guide, ed. Walter Laqueur (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 344.
71. Peters, Zarathustra's Sister: the Case of Elisabeth and Friedrich Nietzsche (New York: Crown, 1977), 221.
72. Aschheim, The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890-1990 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 235-236.
73. Nolte, Nietzsche und Nietzscheanismus (Frankfurt and Berlin: Propyläen, 1990), 194-195.
74. Mussolini, Opere, III, 66 (emphasis added).
75. Mussolini, Opere II, 53.
76. Nolte, "Marx und Nietzsche im Sozialismus des jungen Mussolini," Historische Zeitschrift 191 (1960), 249-335.
77. Mussolini, "La filosofia dell forza: Postille alla conferenza dell' on. Treves," Opere I, 174-184.
78. In this respect Zeev Sternhell's controversial thesis that fascism was an outgrowth of the "crisis of Marxism" is technically correct. See Sternhell, Neither Right Nor Left (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996).
79. Benjamin, "The Work of Art, in the Era of Mechanical Reproduction," in Illuminations, ed. H. Arendt, trans. H. Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969).
80. Mussolini, Opere V, 141-143.
81. Ernst Bloch, The Heritage of Our Times, trans. Neville Plaice and Stephen Plaice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 313.
82. Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), vol. 4, 3.
83. The Cambridge Companion to Jung, ed. P. Young-Eisendrath and T. Dawson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), xii.
84. For a similar argument, see Christopher Hauke, Jung and the Postmodern: the Interpretation of Realities (New York: Routledge, 2000).
85. Susan Rowland, Jung: A Feminist Revision (New York: Routledge, 2002), 140.
86. See, for example, Samuels's introduction to The Cambridge Companion to Jung, "Jung and the Post-Jungians," where Jung is generously credited (too generously, in my opinion) with having anticipated almost all future developments in post-Freudian psychology.
87. John Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method: The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein (New York: Vintage, 1993), 46-47.
88. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (New York: Random House, 1961), 41.
89. Cited in Richard Noll, The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 47.
90. Freud to Jung, 11 March 1908, The Freud/Jung Letters: the Correspondence Between Sigmund Freud and C. G. Jung, trans. R. Mannheim and R. F. C. Hull, ed. W. McGuire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 134.
91. Freud, The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, trans. J. Strachey (London: Hogarth Press, 1953), vol. 2, 305.
92. The Freud/Jung Letters, 294.
93. Cited in Kerr, A Most Dangerous Method, 58.
94. The Freud/Jung Letters, 289.
95. Noll, The Jung Cult, 129.
96. Jung, "The State of Psychotherapy Today," in Civilization in Transition, Collected Works, vol. 10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 160.
97. Jung, "Vom Werden der Persönlichkeit," in Wirklichkeit der Seele (Zurich: Rascher Verlag, 1934), 180n. In the English version, this last phrase is mistranslated. See C. G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 65.
98. C. G. Jung Speaking, 59-66.
99. Jung, "Diagnosing the Dictators," C. G. Jung Speaking, 115-135.
100. Paul Roazen, "Jung and Anti-Semitism," in Lingering Shadows: Jungians, Freudians, and Anti-Semitism, ed. A. Maidenbaum and S. A. Martin (Boston and London: Shambhala, 1991), 218-219.
101. Cited in Noll, The Aryan Christ, 114.
102. Noll, The Jung Cult, 260-261.
103. The Freud/Jung Letters, 483-484.
104. Ernest Jones, Free Associations: Memories of a Psychoanalyst (New York: Basic Books, 1959), 172-173.
105. For the best accounts of Gross, see Martin Green, Mountain of Truth: The Counterculture Begins, Ascona, 1900-1920 (Hanover: University Press of New England, 1986), 17 and following, and The von Richthofen Sisters: the Triumphant and Tragic Modes of Love (New York: Basic Books, 1974), 31 and following.
106. The Freud/Jung Letters, 153.
107. C. G. Jung, Psychology of the Unconscious: A Study of the Transformations and Symbolisms of the Libido, trans. B. Hinkle (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 326, para. 249.
108. Noll, The Jung Cult, 159.
109. Noll, The Aryan Christ, 84.
110. Jung, Analytical Psychology: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1925 by C. G. Jung, ed. W. McGuire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 96.
111. The Correspondence of Freud and Sandor Ferenczi, vol. 1, ed. E. Brabant et al. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 399.
112. Noll, The Jung Cult, 128.
113. Noll, The Aryan Christ, 141.
114. See Noll, The Aryan Christ, 269.
115. Sonu Shamdasani, "A Woman Called Frank," Spring 50 (1990), 40.
116. Noll, The Aryan Christ, 270.
117. Michael Burleigh, Germany Turns Eastwards: A Study of Ostforschung in the Third Reich (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
118. Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus, ed. Winfried Schulze and Otto G. Oexle (Frankfurt am Main: Fischer Verlg, 1999).
119. Frank-Rutger Hausmann, Deutsche Geisteswissenchaft im Zweiten Weltkrieg: Die "Aktion Ritterbusch," 1940-1945 (Dresden-Munich: Dresden University Press, 1998).
120. See, for example, Eckhard Michels, Das deutsche Institut im Paris: 1940-1944 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993).
121. Martin Heidegger, Reden und andere Zeugnisse eines Lebensweges 1910-1976 (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 2000). See also the summary by Ludger Lütkehaus, "Der Staat am Sterbebett," in Die Zeit 22, May 23, 2001.
122. Deutsche Historiker im Nationalsozialismus, 32.
123. On the instability of Nazi ideology and the resultant interpretive problems that have arisen, see Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
124. Michael Grüttner, "Wissenschaft," in Enzykopädie des Nationalsozialismus, ed. W. Benz (Stutgartt: Klett-Cotta, 1997), 144.
125. Wehler, The German Empire (Leamington Spa: Berg, 1985), 231.
126. Jan Ross, "Schmuggel: Gadamers Geheimnis," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, February 11, 1995, 27.
127. Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Reflections on My Philosophical Journey," in Philosophical Apprenticeships, trans. R. Sullivan (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 2.
128. The Philosophy of Hans-Georg Gadamer, ed. L. E. Hahn (Chicago: Open Court Press, 1996), 6.
129. Gadamer, Philosophical Apprenticeships, 38.
130. The Philosophy of Hans-Georg Gadamer, 9.
131. Gadamer, Philosophical Apprenticeships, 72.
132. Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Die wirklichen Nazis hatten doch überhaupt kein Interesse an uns" (Interview with Dörte von Westernhagen), Das Argument 32(4) (July-August 1990), 551.
133. Gadamer, Philosophical Apprenticeships, 104.
134. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Seabury, 1975), 232, 234.
135. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Philosophical Hermeneutics, trans. D. Linge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 9.
136. Gadamer, Truth and Method, 249.
137. Jürgen Habermas, review of Truth and Method, in The Hermeneutic Tradition, ed. G. Ormiston and A. Schrift (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), 238.
138. The competing, nonpolitically freighted option was merely to transliterate the Greek original, Politea.
139. See "The Republic," in The Works of Plato, ed. B. Jowett (New York: Tudor, 1936), 323-333. For a good short commentary on Plato's critique of democracy, see Ernest Barker, Greek Political Theory: Plato and His Predecessors (London: Methuen, 1960).
140. Jaeger, "Die Erziehung des politischen Menschen in der Antike," Volk im Werden, 1 (3) (1933), 46.
141. Cited in K. Vretska, "Introduction, Platon," Der Staat (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1980), 5.
142. G.W.F. Hegel, The Philosophy of Right, trans. T. M. Knox (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952), 257-258.
143. Heyse, Die Idee der Wissenschaft und die deutsche Universität (Königsberg: Königsberg Press, 1933), 12.
144. Näf, Von Perikles zu Hitler? 184-185.
145. Das Humanistische Gymnasium (1933), 209.
146. Jaeger, "Die Erziehung des politischen Mensch in der Antike," Volk im Werden I (3) (1933), 43.
147. Gadamer, "Die wirklichen Nazis hatten doch überhaupt kein Interesse an uns," 549.
148. On this subject, see Leon Poliakov and Josef Wulf, Das dritte Reich und seine Denker (München, New York: K. G. Sauer, 1978); for the field of philosophy in particular, see T. Laugstien, Philosophieverhältnisse im deutschen Faschismus (Hamburg: Argument Verlag, 1990).
149. Hans-Georg Gadamer, "Plato and the Poets," in Dialogue and Dialectic: Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato, trans. C. Smith (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1980), 39. Subsequent references will appear parenthetically.
150. Gadamer, "Reflections on My Philosophical Journey," 13.
151. Gadamer, "Plato and the Poets," 39.
152. Gadamer, "Die wirklichen Nazis," 549.
153. Gadamer, "Die wirklichen Nazis hatten doch überhaupt kein Interesse an uns," 546. For Gadamer's review of Hildebrandt (first published in 1935), see Gesammelte Werke V, 331-37.
154. Hitler, Mein Kampf (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1941), 423.
155. Volker Losemann, Nationalsozialismus und die Antike (Hamburg: Hoffman und Campe, 1977), 11.
156. Werner Maser, Hitlers Briefe und Notizen. Seine Weltbild in handschriftlichen Dokumenten (Düsseldorf: Econ, 1973), 295.
157. Hitler, Sämtliche Aufzeichnungen 1905-1924, ed. E. Jäckel (Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 1980), 187.
158. Cited in Joachim Fest, Hitler (New York: Vintage, 1971), 382.
159. Näf, Von Perikles zu Hitler? 118.
160. Orozco, "Die Platon-Rezeption in Deutschland," 142
161. see also, Orozco, Platonische Gewalt: Gadamers politische Hermeneutik der NS-Zeit (Hamburg: Argument, 1995), 142.
162. Benno von Wiese, Herder: Grundzüge seines Weltbildes (Leipzig: Meyer, 1939), 124
163. Friedrich Weinrich, Herders deutsche Bezeugung des Evangeliums in den 'Christlichen Schriften' (Weimar, 1937), 7.
164. Walter Kriewald, Herders Gedanken über die Verbindung von Religion und Volkstum (Ohlau i. Schlesien, 1935), 6.
165. Dahmen, Die nationale Idee von Herder bis Hitler (Köln: 1934), 62.
166. For an important survey of the appropriation of Herder during the Third Reich, see Bernhard Becker, "Herder in der nationalsozialistischen Germanistik," in Herder im "Dritten Reich," ed. J. Schneider (Bielefeld: Aisthesis Verlag, 1994).
167. See Orozco, Platonische Gewalt, 109.
168. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Volk und Geschichte im Denken Herders (Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1942), 5, 7 (emphasis added).
169. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Gesammelte Werke, vol. 4 (Tübingen: Mohr Verlag, 1987), 333.
170. Claus Grossner, Verfall der Philosophie: Politik der deutschen Philosophen (Reinbeck b. Hamburg: Christian Wegner Verlag), 234.
171. Habermas, "Review of Truth and Method," in The Hermeneutic Tradition, 239 (translation altered).
172. Gadamer, The Philosophy of Hans-Georg Gadamer, 97.
173. For the relevant texts, see Gadamer, "The Scope and Function of Hermeneutical Reflection," in Philosophical Hermeneutics, 18-44; and Habermas, "A Review of Gadamer's Truth and Method" and "The Hermeneutic Claim to Universality," in The Hermeneutic Tradition, 213-273.
174. Grossner, "Die Philosophie des Vorurteils," in Verfall der Philosophie, 53-63.
175. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Seabury, 1975), 239-240 (emphasis added).
176. See Hans Albert, "Critical Rationalism and Universal Hermeneutics," in Gadamer's Century: Essays in Honor of Hans-Georg Gadamer, ed. J. Malpas et al. (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2002), 17.
177. Wellmer, Kritische Theorie und Positivismus (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1971), 48.
178. Gadamer, "The Universality of the Hermeneutical Problem," 16.
179. Gadamer, "The 1920s, the 1930s, and the Present," 147, 148, 150.
180. "Der 'Führer' und seine Denker: Zur Philosophie des 'Dritten Reiches,'" Deutsche Zeitschrift für Philosophie 47 (1999).
181. Hausmann, "Unwahrheit als Methode? Zu Hans Georg Gadamers Publikationen im 'Dritten Reich,' Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie 1 (November 2001).
182. Gereon Walters, "Der 'Führer' und seine Denker," 231.
183. Martin Heidegger, Nietzsche: Europäischer Nihilismus, Gesamtausgabe 48 (Frankfurt: Klostermann, 1986), 205, 333.
184. See the texts assembled in Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie 1 (November 2001).
185. See, for example, Joachim Fest, Das Gesicht des dritten Reiches: Profile eines totalitärischen Herrschaft (Munich: Piper, 1988), 342.
186. See Herbert Marcuse, letter to Heidegger of May 12, 1948, in The Heidegger Controversy: A Critical Reader, ed. Richard Wolin (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993), 152-164.
187. Joseph Goebbels, Tagebücher. Aus den Jahren 1942/43, ed. L. P. Lorchner (Zürich: 1948), 186.
188. Michels, Das Deutsche Institut in Paris, 38.
189. Europa unter dem Hakenkreuz, Dokument 7, 117.
190. On the Nazis' plans for European domination, see Robert Herzstein, When Nazi Dreams Come True (London: Abacus, 1982).
191. Hans-Georg Gadamer, Volk und Geschichte im Denken Herders (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann Verlag, 1942), 23.
192. Ernst Nolte and François Furet, Fascism and Communism (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002).
193. Ernst Troeltsch, "The Ideas of Natural Law and Humanity in World Politics," in Otto von Gierke, Natural Law and the Theory of Society, ed. Ernest Barker (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1950), 204, 211.
194. Friedbert Pflüger, Deutschland Driftet: Die konservative Revolution endeckt ihre Kinder (Düsseldorf: Econ Verlag, n.d.).
195. Karl Heinz Bohrer, "Why We Are Not a Nation-and Why We Must Become One," New German Critique 52 (Winter 1991), 72-94.
196. Christian Meier, Die Nation die keine sein will (Munich: Hanser, 1991).
197. Jürgen Habermas, "Yet Again: German Identity-An Angry Nation of DM-Burghers," New German Critique 52 (Winter 1991), 84-101
198. Habermas, "The Normative Deficits of Reunification," The Past as Future, trans. M. Pensky (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 55-73.
199. See Antonia Grunenberg, Antifaschismus: Ein deutscher Mythos (Reinbeck: Rowohlt, 1993).
200. See Joffe, "Mr. Heilbrunn's Planet," Foreign Affairs (March/April 1997), 152-161. Joffe's article was written in response to Jacob Heilbrunn, "Germany's New Right," Foreign Affairs (November/December 1996), 80-98.
201. Zitelmann, cited in Maria Zens, "Vergangenheit verlegen," in H-M Lohmann, ed., Extremismus der Mitte (Frankfurt: Fischer Verlag, 1994), 116.
202. For a description of these events, see Elliot Neaman, A Dubious Past: Ernst Jünger and the Politics of Literature after Nazism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), chapter 7.
203. Westbindung: Chancen und Risiken für Deutschland, ed. R. Zitelmann, K. Weissmann, and M. Grossheim (Frankfurt/Berlin: Propyläen, 1993), 10 (emphasis added).
204. Felix Stern, "Feminismus und Apartheid," in Die Selbstbewusste Nation, ed. Ulrich Schacht and Heimo Schwilk (Frankfurt am Main: Ullsetin, 1994), 291 (italics added).
205. Ernst Jünger, "Der Kampf um das Reich," cited in Pflüger, Deutschland driftet, 35-36.
206. For a detailed discussion of Schmitt's influence on the New Right, see Klaus Kriener, "Plettenberg-Freiburg-Potsdam: Über den Einfluss Carl Schmitts auf die Junge Freiheit," in Das Plagiat: Der völkisiche Nationalismus der Jungen Freiheit, ed. H. Kellershohn (Duisberg: DISS, 1994), 181-212.
207. John Ely, "The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and National Conservativism," German Politics and Society 13(2) (Summer 1995), 83.
208. See Hans Magnus Enzensberger, Aussichten auf dem Bürgerkrieg (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1993).
209. Botho Strauss, "Anschwellender Bockgesang," in Die selbstbewusste Nation und weitere Beiträge zu einer deutschen Debatte, ed. H. Schwilk and U. Schacht (Berlin: Ullstein, 1994), 26 (first published in Der Spiegel 46, 1993).
210. Cited in Klaus Naumann, "'Neauanfang ohne Tabus,'" 76.
211. Wolfgang Schäuble, Und der Zukunft zugewandt (Berlin: Siedler, 1994), 220ff.
212. Andrei Markovits and Simon Reich, The German Predicament: Memory and Power in the New Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), 25.
213. Pflüger, Deutschland Driftet, 38.
214. "Ein historisches Recht Hitlers"? Der Faschismus-Interpret Ernst Nolte über den Nationalsozialismus, Auschwitz und die Neue Rechte. Spiegel-Gespräch mit Rudolf Augstein." Der Spiegel, Nr. 40 (Oct. 10, 1994), 83-103.
215. John Ely, "The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung and National Conservatism," 106-107.
216. See Jeffrey Herf, War By Other Means (New York: Free Press, 1991);
217. Hans-Georg Betz, Postmodern Politics in Germany (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991).
218. For more on National Bolshevism, see Herzinger and Stein, Endzeit-Propheten, 126-143; see also Louis Dupeux, National Bolchevisme, 2 vols. (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1979).
219. See David Pan, "Botho Strauss: Myth, Community, and Nationalism in Germany," Telos 105 (Fall 1995), 57: "Since the end of communism and the reunification of Germany, writers from both the former East and West Germany have sounded the alarm against the materialism of German culture, the dangers of capitalist homogenization, and the decline of values. An entire generation of 'left-wing' writers, including Heiner Müller, Botho Strauss, Hans Magnus Enzensberger, and Martin Walser have attempted to defend German culture against the perceived threat of American capitalism and Western rationalism."
220. Strauss, "Anschwellender Bockgesang," 31.
221. Strauss, Beginnlosigkeit (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1992), 107.
222. Nietzsche, The Will to Power, trans. W. Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1967), 796.
223. For an excellent treatment of this problem, see Hans Reiss, ed., The Political Doctrines of German Romanticism; and Josef Chytry, The Aesthetic State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
224. Strauss, "Anschwelleder Bockgesang," 39.
225. Syberberg, Vom Unglück und Glück der Kunst im Deutschland nach dem letzten Kriege (Munich: Matthes and Seitz, 1990), 114.
226. Dieter Diederichsen, "Spiritual Reactionaries After German Reunification: Syberberg, Foucault, and Others," October 62 (Fall 1992), 66.
227. Cited in Pflüger, Deutschland Driftet, 11.
228. For a summary of the debate, see Roger Cohn, "Germany Searches for Normalization," New York Times, November 29, 1998, section 4, 10. At one point the dramatist Heiner Müller gleefully joined the chorus: "It has to do with a tragedy that has so far been completely covered up-the tragedy of the German people and the end of the German nation. All of that has been suppressed. That is why there is no good German literature about the Second World War. The right is now pushing into this vacuum."
229. Saul Friedländer, "Die Metapher des Bösen," Die Zeit 49, November 26, 1998, 50.
230. Pflüger, Deutschland driftet, 89.
231. See Werner Bergmann, "Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany Since Unification," in Antisemitism and Xenophobia in Germany Since Unification, ed. H. Kurthen et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 21-38.
232. Habermas, "1945 in the Shadow of 1989," in A Berlin Republic (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 180-181. See also Habermas, "Die zweite Lebenslüge der Bundesrepublik: Wir sind wieder 'normal' geworden," Die Zeit 51 (December 18, 1992).
233. "Schröder Backs Design for a Vast Berlin Holocaust Memorial," New York Times, January 17, 1999, A6. For a good discussion of the controversial history of this project, see Michael Wise, Capital Dilemma: Germany's Search for a New Architecture of Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998).
234. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. G. Lawrence (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 703.
235. See Daniel Goldhagen, "Modell Budesrepublik: National History, Democracy, and Internationalization in Germany," Common Knowledge 6(3) (1997), 11: "Two parallel, indeed surprising, developments characterize the Federal Republic: the emergence of a relatively non-nationalist and remarkably self-critical, national history and a relatively non-nationalist, internationally responsible nation state."
236. Jürgen Habermas, "Die Moderne: Ein unvollendetes Projekt," in Kleine Politische Schriften, I-IV (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1981), 444-464. The essay originated as a lecture delivered by Habermas on the occasion of his receipt of the Adorno prize awarded by the city of Frankfurt on September 11, 1980. It has appeared in English in New German Critique 22 (Winter 1981) under the title, "Modernity vs. Postmodernity," 3-14; as well as in The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture (Port Townsend, Wash.: Bay Press, 1983), edited by Hal Foster, under the title, "Modernity: An Incomplete Project" (which corresponds to the original German). The reference to "sovereignty" is an allusion to Bataille.
237. For an example of such confusion, see John Rajchman, "Habermas' Complaint," in New German Critique 45 (Spring 1988), 163-191.
238. Rajchman, "On Misunderstanding Habermas," New German Critique 49 (Winter 1990), 139-154.
239. I have explored these filiations in my book The Politics of Being: The Political Thought of Martin Heidegger (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990). See especially chapter 2, "Being and Time as Political Philosophy." In 1933 Heidegger urged Schmitt to join the Nazi Party. He later avowed that during this period his understanding of politics was largely shaped by Jünger's 1932 encomium to the totalitarian ideal, Der Arbeiter: Gestalt und Herrschaft (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlanganstalt, 1932).
240. For an important discussion of this problem, see Kurt Sontheimer, "Anti-democratic Thought in the Weimar Republic," in The Path to Dictatorship, 1918-1933 (Garden City, N.J.: Anchor, 1966), 32-49.
241. Manfred Frank, Die Grenzen der Verständigung: Ein Geistergespräch zwischen Habermas and Lyotard (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1988), 20.
242. For substantiation of this claim, one should consult the important book by Luc Ferry and Alain Renaut, French Philosophy of the Sixties (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990). The original French title of the book, La Pensée '68, is of course much more congenial from the standpoint of the argument I've just made.
243. "Créer une religion, voilà ce qu'il voulait. Une religion sans dieu." Cited in Bernard-Henri Lévy, Les Aventures de la Liberté (Paris: Grasset, 1991), 170.
244. See Jacques Derrida, "From Restricted to a General Economy: A Hegelianism without Reserve," Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1978), 251-277;
245. Michel Foucault, "A Preface to Transgression," Language, Counter-Memory, Practice (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1977), 29-52. Derrida's attitudes toward Bataille are less unequivocally positive than are Foucault's.
246. "The logic developed by Bataille . . . Links the twenties' context to a later generation of radical critics, including Michele Foucault, Roland Barthes, Jacques Derrida, and the Tel Quel Group." James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1988), 125, 127. See also the important number of the journal Critique (1963; the journal was founded by Bataille in the late 1940s), "Hommage à Georges Bataille," which contains contributions by Foucault, Derrida, Barthes, and Philippe Sollers.
247. See Friedrich Nietzsche, "European Nihilism," in The Will to Power, trans. W. Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage, 1968), pp. 9-82. "What does nihilism mean? That the highest values devaluate themselves. The aim is lacking; 'why?' finds no answer" (9).
248. Hans-Ulrich Wehler's The German Empire (Leamington Spa: Berg, 1973), remains one of the best historical accounts of this resistance. Wehler's argument concerning a German Sonderweg was called into question by Geoff Eley and Robin Blackbourn in The Peculiarities of German History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984). The critics of the Sonderweg thesis have yet to explain how, if Germany's path to modernity was so "normal," the twelve year "detour" of National Socialism and then Auschwitz could have been possible.
249. Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian, 1958), 108.
250. "Déclaration," Cahiers du Cercle Proudhon, Jan.-Feb. 1912, 1.
251. See Zeev Sternhell, Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), an indispensable guide to the ideological genesis of the French right: "There can be no doubt: in large part, the emergence of the Faisceau was due to the deep need for action felt by the younger generation in the old ligues, and for that reason the fascist movement represented a danger both for the Action Française and for the other national ligues, headed by the oldest-Déroulède's Ligue des Patriotes" (101). In terms of its actual practice, the Faisceau sought to promote a convocation of the Estates General with the end in view of establishing a true corporative state.
252. See Philippe Burrin, La Dérive fasciste: Bergery, Déat and Doriot (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1986).
253. Tony Judt, Past Imperfect: French Intellectuals, 1944-1956 (Berkeley: University of California, 1993), 18.
254. Drieu La Rochelle, Le Socialisme fasciste (Paris: Gallimard, 1934).
255. For more on Proudhon, see K. Steven Vincent, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and the Rise of French Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984).
256. A. Honneth, "An Aversion Against the Universal," Theory, Culture and Society 2(3) (1985).
257. Bataille, "The Sacred Conspiracy," in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927-1929, ed. A. Stoekl (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), 179.
258. For a discussion of Bataille and his French theoretical heirs, see Martin Jay, Downcast Eyes: The Denigration of Vision in Twentieth-Century French Thought (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
259. Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, vol. II, trans. C. F. Atkinson (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1950), 11.
260. One might also note that an analogous schema characterizes Ernst Bloch's early work, Geist der Utopie (a long chapter of which is devoted to philosophy of music), which appeared the same year (1918) as volume I of Spengler's opus.
261. Spengler, The Decline of the West, Vol. II, 8-9 (emphasis added).
262. Jünger, Der Kampf als inneres Erlebnis (Berlin: E. S. Mittler, 1922), 57.
263. Bataille, "The Threat of War," October 36 (Spring 1986), 28.
264. Jay, "The Reassertion of Sovereignty in a Time of Crisis: Carl Schmitt and Georges Bataille," in Force Fields: Between Intellectual History and Cultural Critique (New York: Routledge, 1992), 16.
265. Bataille, The Accursed Share, 74.
266. Walter Benjamin, "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, in Illuminations, ed. H. Arendt, trans. H. Zohn (New York: Schocken, 1969), 242.
267. See also Benjamin's important statement on this theme in his review of Jünger's 1930 volume, Krieg und Krieger, in Benjamin, Gesammelte Schriften III (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1972), 240: "The new theory of war . . . is nothing less than a transposition of the theses of l'art pour l'art to war."
268. Bataille, The Accursed Share, trans. R. Hurley (Cambridge: Zone Books, 1988), 38, 39.
269. Marcel Mauss, The Gift: Forms and Function of Exchange in Archaic Societies, trans. I Cunnison (New York: Norton, 1967), 1.
270. Bataille, "The Notion of Expenditure," in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 118 (emphasis added).
271. Judt, Past Imperfect, 73, 9.
272. See the interpretation of Foucault along these lines in James Miller, The Passion of Michel Foucault (New York: Random House, 1992).
273. Miller views Foucault as faithful to the Nietzschean ethical legacy I have been describing, in which "self-overcoming" remains the highest value. See the critique of Miller's interpretation in Martin Jay, Cultural Semantics: Keywords of Our Time (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998), chapter 5, "The Limits of Limit Experience: Bataille and Foucault."
274. See Maurice Blanchot, La Communauté inavouable (Paris: Minuit, 1983)
275. Jean-Luc Nancy La Communauté désoeuvrée (Paris: Galilée, 1986).
276. Bernard-Henri Lévy, L'idéologie française (Paris: Grasset, 1981), 220-221;
277. emphasis added. For an article by one of Mauss's students that, relatively early on, perceived the problematic link between the new sociology of community and burgeoning fascism, see Svend Ranulf, "Scholarly Forerunners of Fascism," Ethics 50(1) (October 1939), 16-34.
278. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, "Introduction," to Mauss, The Gift, ix.
279. See also Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss, Sacrifice: Its Nature and Function (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1964).
280. Mauss, The Gift, 74.
281. Bataille's relation to Hegelian dialectics is predominantly negative- he believes that they remain excessively indebted to the forces of modern rationality; as such, they partake of the order of the homogeneous-which stands in stark contrast to his enthusiastic relation to Nietzsche. See "The Critique of the Foundations of the Hegelian Dialectic" in Visions of Excess, 105-115.
282. Bataille, "The Notion of Expenditure," 117-118.
283. Bataille, The Accursed Share, 55-57.
284. Allan Stoekl, "Introduction," Visions of Excess, xiii.
285. Potlatch is most commonly practiced among Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest and Canada, such as the Haida, Kwakiutl, and Tlinlgit.
286. Mauss, The Gift, 72 (emphasis added).
287. On this point, see Jean-Louis Loubet del Bayle, Les Non-conformistes des années trentes (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1969).
288. Jean-François Fourny, Introduction à la lecture de Georges Bataille (New York: Peter Lang, 1988), 104. As Fourny goes on to observe, "This explains the fact that for the Bataille of this period the war signified hardly more than a sort of rumor that only began to matter when it penetrated his immediate universe."
289. See also Fourny's excellent article, "Georges Bataille and Gaston Bergery: Sorcerer's Apprentices of the Thirties, Clio 18(3), 239-254.
290. Surya's remarks are cited in Allan Stoekl's essay, "Truman's Apotheosis: Bataille, 'Planisme,' and Headlessness," Yale French Studies 78, "On Bataille" (1990), 181.
291. La Critique Sociale (Paris: La Découverte, 1983). It may be of interest to note in this connection that when Bataille published his "Theory of Expenditure" in Souvarine's review in 1933, the article appeared with a disclaimer to indicate that the point of view expressed in the essay were not necessarily shared by the editorial collective as a whole.
292. His charges have been rebutted by Maurice Blanchot in Le Débat 29 (March 1984), 20. Laure was Souvarine's petite amie before becoming enamored of Bataille, so there is also an histoire d'amour involved.
293. Bataille, "The Psychological Structure of Fascism," in Visions of Excess, 139.
294. For more on this distinction among various "action-types," see Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1. (Boston: Beacon Press, 1984).
295. Bataille, "The Psychological Structure of Fascism," 143.
296. Anthony Stephens, "Georges Bataille's Diagnosis of Fascism," Thesis 11, no. 24 (1989), 74, 85. In terms of the question I have raised concerning Bataille's affinities with the conservative revolutionaries, the same author has observed, Bataille "shows the same willingness to accept the Nazis as much nobler than all the facts suggested that determined, for varying lengths of time, the attitudes of Ernst Jünger, Gottfried Benn and Martin Heidegger."
297. Ernst Cassirer, The Myth of the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946), 279, 280.
298. Bataille, "The Sorcerer's Apprentice," in The College of Sociology, ed. D. Hollier (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1988), 22, 23.
299. Caillois, La Communion des Forts (Mexico City: Editions Quetzel, 1943). A French publication of Communion des Forts ensued the following year. Yet several key chapters were removed in anticipation of censorship.
300. See Meyer Schapiro, "French Reaction in Exile," Kenyon Review, 7(1) (Winter 1945), 29-42.
301. Hollier, ed., The College of Sociology, 216-217
302. For more on the Ordensburgen, see Heinz Höhne, The Order of the Death's Head, trans. R. Barry (New York: Penguin, 2000).
303. Roger Caillois, "Entretien avec Roger Caillois," La Quinzaine littéraire ( June 16-30, 1970).
304. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 3, 521.
305. Breton, Manifestoes of Surrealism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1969)
306. For more on the mercurial relations between Bataille and Breton, see Lévy, Les Aventures de la liberté, 164-166.
307. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, vol. II, 380, 381, 382 (emphasis added).
308. Stoekl, Introduction to Visions of Excess, xviii.
309. Henri Dubief, "Témoignage sur Contre-Attaque," in Textures no. 6 (1970), 56-57.
310. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 1, 398.
311. Breton, Manifestos of Surrealism, 125.
312. Bataille, "Le Fascisme français," in Oeuvres complètes, vol. 2, 212; emphasis added.
313. Lindenberg, Les Années souterraines (Paris: Editions de la Découverte, 1993), 64, 62.
314. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 7, 461.
315. Lukacs: From Romanticism to Bolshevism (London: New Left Books, 1977).
316. Cited in Karl Dietrich Bracher, The German Dictatorship (Fort Worth: Holt, Rinehart, 1970), 10.
317. See Sternhell, Anti-Semitism and the Right in France ( Jerusalem: Shahar Library: 1988).
318. Perhaps the foremost offender remains Georg Lukacs, The Destruction of Reason (London: Merlin Press, 1980).
319. See Horkheimer, "The Revolt of Nature," in The Eclipse of Reason (New York: Seabury, 1974), 92.
320. See The Foucault Reader, ed. P. Rabinow (New York: Pantheon, 1984), where in his later writings Foucault explicitly has recourse to the Nietzschean trope of an "aesthetics of existence" to extricate his theory from the apparent normative cul-de-sac of a seemingly omnipotent "biopower."
321. See, for example, Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, trans. F. Lawrence (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987)
322. Manfred Frank, What is Neostructuralism? trans. S. Wilke and R. Gray (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).
323. Foucault, Maurice Blanchot: The Thought from Outside, trans. B. Massumi (Cambridge: Zone Books, 1990), 11.
324. See Mehlman, "Blanchot at Combat: of Literature and Terror," in Legacies of Anti-Semitism in France (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983), 6-22
325. "Pour Sainte-Beuve: Maurice Blanchot, 10 March 1942," in Genealogies of the Text (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
326. For a good account of their views, see Roger Soltau, French Political Thought in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Russell and Russell, 1959), 203-250.
327. Maurice Blanchot, "Quand l'Etat est revolutionnaire," Le Rempart, April 24, 1933 (emphasis added).
328. Philippe Burrin, France Under the Germans: Collaboration and Compromise, trans. J. Lloyd (New York: The New Press, 1996), 61.
329. Blanchot, cited in Bident, Maurice Blanchot, 77.
330. Blanchot, "La Fin du 6 Février, 1934," Combat 2, February 1936, 2.
331. Denis de Rougement, Nouvelle Revue Française (December 1932).
332. For a good discussion of integral nationalism, see William C. Buthman, The Rise of Integral Nationalism in France (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939).
333. See Julien Hervier, Deux individus contre l'histoire: Pierre Drieu la Rochelle, Ernst Jünger (Paris: Klinck Sieck, 1978).
334. Mesnard, Maurice Blanchot, 20.
335. Blanchot, Le Rempart, June 22, 1933.
336. The title of a contemporaneous work by the German conservative revolutionary sociologist Hans Freyer. For more on Freyer, see Muller, The Other God that Failed.
337. On the left's contentious relationship to democracy and parliamentarism, see Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001).
338. Blanchot, La Revue du Siècle, 6 ( June 1933).
339. Etienne de Montety, Thierry Maulnier: Biographie (Paris: Julliard, 1994) 126-136.
340. Mesnard, Maurice Blanchot, 32.
341. Sternhell, Neither Right, Nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France, trans. D. Maisel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 223
342. For a discussion of the ideological orientation of Maulnier and Combat that stresses the centrality of "spiritual revolution," see Carroll, French Literary Fascism: Nationalism, 222-247.
343. See Blanchot's article in Le Rempart, April 28, 1936.
344. Blanchot, L'Insurgé, January 27, 1937 (emphasis added).
345. Céline, L'Ecole des cadavres (Paris, 1938), 264.
346. Michael Marrus and Robert Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 39.
347. Blanchot, "Après le coup de force allemande," Combat, 1(4), April 3, 1936.
348. Blanchot, "Terrorisme comme méthode du salut publique," Combat, 1(7), July 7, 1936 (emphasis added).
349. Girardet, Tendances politiques dans la vie Française depuis 1789 (Paris: Hachette, 1960), 131.
350. Sternhell, Neither Right, Nor Left, xvii.
351. See also, Paxton, Vichy France: Old Guard, New Order (New York: Columbia University Press, 1972), 165
352. For more on Uriage, see John Hellman, The Knight Monks of Vichy France: Uriage, 1940-45 (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1997).
353. See W. D. Halls, The Youth of Vichy French (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), 313.
354. Marc Fumaroli, L'Etat culturel: une religion moderne (Paris: Editions de Fallois, 1991), 94.
355. Lindenberg, Les Années souterrains, 1937-1947 (Paris: La Découverte, 1990).
356. Mounier, Esprit, (November 1940), 10.
357. Marrus and Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews, 13
358. Serge and Beate Klarsfeld, Vichy-Auschwitz: le role de Vichy dans la solution finale de la question juive dans France (Paris: Fayard, 1983-85).
359. Fumaroli, L'Etat culturel, 95.
360. Loubet del Bayle, Les Non-Conformistes des années trentes, 411-412.
361. Mehlman, "Blanchot à Combat: Littérature et Terreur," Tel Quel 92 (Summer 1982)
362. Mehlman, Legacies of Anti-Semitism in France (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983)
363. Blanchot's 1979 letter is reprinted in Appendix II, 107-109.
364. Jeffrey Mehlman, Genealogies of the Text (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 174-194.
365. See Mehlman, Legacies of Anti-Semitism in France, Appendix II, 107-109.
366. Blanchot and Bataille became friends in the early 1940s; clearly, the relationship had a transformative impact upon Blanchot's conception of criticism. For a good account of their mutual influence, see Mesndard, Maurice Blanchot, 70-83.
367. Blanchot, The Gaze of Orpheus (Barrytown: Station Hill, 1981), 5 (emphasis added).
368. Michael Syrotinski, "How is Literature Possible," in A New History of French Literature, ed. D. Hollier (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 957. effect, even in memory."
369. Martin Heidegger, "What is Metaphysics," in Basic Writings, ed. D. Krell (New York: Harper Row, 1977), 105.
370. Jean-Paul Sartre, Nausea, trans. L. Alexander (New York: New Directions, 1964), 129, 131.
371. Cited in Jean-Paul Sartre, Oeuvres romanesques (Paris: Gallimard, 1981), 1708.
372. Blanchot, "From Dread to Literature," 19
373. For deconstruction's well-known claim that understanding is predicated on misunderstanding, see Jonathan Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982).
374. Blanchot, "From Dread to Literature," 8 (emphasis added).
375. Blanchot, "Literature and the Right to Death," 29 (emphasis added).
376. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, III (Paris: Gallimard, 1971), 521 (emphasis added).
377. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, V, 355.
378. For Bataille's criticisms of Hegel, see "The Critique of the Foundations of the Hegelian Dialectic," in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings, 1927-1939, ed. A. Stoekl (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986)
379. Inner Experience, trans. L. A. Boldt (Albany: SUNY Press, 1988), 109-111.
380. Bataille, Oeuvres complètes, III, 495.
381. Bataille, L'Erotisme (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1957) (emphasis added).
382. Foucault, Interview with Roger-Pol Droit, Le Monde, September 6, 1986.
383. Barthes, "To Write: An Intransitive Verb," in, The Structuralist Controversy, ed. R. Macksey (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 134-154.
384. Thomas Nagel, The Last Word (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 15.
385. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 12.
386. See, for example, Jacques Derrida, Positions, trans. A. Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).
387. Anselm Haverkamp, "Introduction," Deconstruction is/in America (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 7-8.
388. Jacques Derrida, Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, trans. P. Kamuf (New York: Verso, 1996), 92.
389. Michael Sprinker, "Introduction," Ghostly Demarcations, 1.
390. Michèle Lamont, "How to Become a Dominant French Philosopher: The Case of Jacques Derrida," American Journal of Sociology 93 (3) (1987), 607.
391. See Jürgen Habermas, "Natural Law and Revolution," in Theory and Practice, trans. J. Viertel (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973), 82-120
392. See also the important book by Ernst Bloch, Natural Law and Human Dignity, trans. D. Schmidt (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986).
393. Hegel, The Philosophy of History, trans. J. Sibree (New York: Dover Publications, 1956), 446.
394. Jacques Derrida, "The Ends of Man," Margins of Philosophy, trans. A. Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 115.
395. Epistémon (Didier Anzieu), Ces Idées qui ont ébranlé la France (Paris: Fayard, 1968), 83, 31 (emphasis added).
396. Dosse, History of Structuralism I, trans. D. Silverman (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1967), 112-121.
397. Roger Crémont (Clément Rosset), Les Matinées structuralistes (Paris: Laffont, 1969), 32
398. For more on Derrida's (non) relation to the events of May '68, see Kristin Ross, May '68 and Its Afterlives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
399. Lamont, "How to Become a Dominant French Philosopher," 604.
400. As Derrida observed in a January 31, 1982 interview with Christian Descamps in Le Monde: "My first desire tended surely toward the point where the literary event traversed and even went beyond philosophy."
401. Jacques Derrida, Memories for Paul de Man (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 18.
402. See, for example, Deconstruction is/in America, cited in this chapter, note 6.
403. Derrida, Of Grammatology, 158.
404. Jacques Derrida, Glas, trans. J. Leavey (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986
405. Richard Rorty's reflections on these questions in Philosophical Papers, vol. II, Essays on Heidegger and Others (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 85-129.
406. Foucault, "My Body, This Paper, This Fire," Oxford Literary Review 4 (1979), 27 (emphasis added)
407. Jean-Philippe Mathy, French Resistance: The French-American Culture Wars (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 44:
408. Edward Said, The World, the Text, and the Critic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1983), 203, 204, 207.
409. See, for example, Russell Berman, "Troping To Pretoria: The Rise and Fall of Deconstruction," Telos 85 (1990), 4-16.
410. Cited in Les Fins de l'homme: à partir du travail de Jacques Derrida (Paris: Editions Galilée, 1981), 514.
411. See Jonathan Culler, On Deconstruction (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983).
412. I have attempted to raise some of these questions in "Note on a Missing Text," The Heidegger Controversy: A Critical Reader (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993) ix-xviii.
413. Richard Kearney, "Deconstruction and the Other," in Dialogues with Contemporary Thinkers (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1984), 124, 125.
414. Derrida, "The Force of Law," 15, 21, 25.
415. For a good discussion of the problems in Derrida, as they relate to the work of Bataille, see Jean-Michel Besnier, La Politique de l'impossible (Paris: La Découverte, 1988).
416. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, trans. J. Strachey (New York: Norton, 1962), 56-57.
417. Derrida, "The Force of Law," 17 (emphasis added).
418. Ronald Dworkin, "Civil Disobedience," in Taking Rights Seriously (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978).
419. Derrida, "Force of Law," 26.
420. See The Complete Essays of Montaigne, trans. D. Frame (Stanford: Standford University Press, 1948), 821.
421. Carl Schmitt, Political Theology, trans. G. Schwab (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985), 15 (emphasis added).
422. Adorno, Kierkegaard: The Construction of the Aesthetic, trans. R. Hullot-Kentor (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).
423. See, for example, Schmitt's Die Diktatur (Munich and Leipzig: Duncker und Humblot, 1921).
424. "Interrogation of Carl Schmitt by Robert Kempner, 1-III," Telos 72 (1987), 97-129.
425. Derrida, "The Force of Law," 30.
426. Schmitt, The Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy, 75-76.
427. Schmitt, Political Theology, 12.
428. Max Weber, "The Parliament and Government of Germany under a New Regime," in Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 148-49 (translation altered).
429. Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," in Political Writings, 310-311.
430. See, for example, the contemporaneous "Theological-Political Fragment," Reflections (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1978), 312-313.
431. For the best discussion of Sorel's ties to Mussolini, see Zeev Sternhell, The Birth of Fascist Ideology (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).
432. Benjamin, "Critique of Force," 292, and "Zur Kritik der Gewalt," 194.
433. Derrida, "The Force of Law," 35. See the earlier text, "Declarations of Independence," New Political Science 15 (1986), 7-15, where Derrida sets forth similar arguments concerning acts of revolutionary founding as ex nihilo or groundless.
434. Derrida, "Force of Law," 35.
435. Jacques Derrida, Acts of Religion (New York: Routledge, 2001).
436. For the best account of the conservative revolutionaries in English, see Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
437. Cited in The Heidegger Controversy: A Critical Reader, ed. Richard Wolin (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1993), 47.
438. Jean-Paul Sartre, The Search for a Method, trans. Hazel Barnes (New York: Vintage, 1963), 30 (translation altered).
439. Derrida, Specters of Marx, 13. A shortened version of Derrida's text appeared in New Left Review 205 (May-June 1994), 31-58.
440. For a convincing argument to this effect, see Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
441. See for example, J. Cohen and A. Arato, Civil Society and Democratic Theory (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992). The literature on this theme has, of late, become enormous. For an attempt at synthesis, see Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals.
442. Derrida, Specters of Marx, 75.
443. Aijaz Ahmad, "Reconciling Derrida: 'Specters of Marx' and Deconstructive Politics," New Left Review (November-December 1994), 102.
444. Martin Heidegger, "Only a God Can Save Us," in The Heidegger Controversy, 107.
445. See Derrida and Negative Theology, ed. H. Coward and T. Foshay (Albany: SUNY Press, 1992).
446. Derrida, Specters of Marx, 15.
447. Derrida, "The Principle of Reason," Diacritics XIX (1983), 8.
448. Justin Barton, "Phantom Saviours, Phantom States," Radical Philosophy 65 (Autumn 1993), 63.
449. Derrida, Specters of Marx, 37, 51.
450. Derrida, "Racism's Last Word," Critical Inquiry 12(1) (Autumn 1985), 290-299.
451. For more on Gobineau and Chamberlain, see this book's conclusion; see also George M. Fredrickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
452. See Derrida, "Philosopher's Hell," in The Heidegger Controversy, 164-173.
453. Alain Renaut, quoted in Dosse, History of Structuralism I, 271. For a contemporary report of the events surrounding Derrida's arrest, see "Le philosophe Jacques Derrida serait détenu pour 'trafic de drogue,'" Le Monde, January 1, 1982, 1.
454. Singer, "France's Rival Fuhrers," The Nation, February 15, 1999, 6. See also Janice Valls-Russell, "Political Bickering in France," The New Leader, February 8, 1999 8.
455. See Paul Hockenos, "Jörg Haider: Austria's Far Right Wunderkind," World Policy Journal (Fall 1995), 75.
456. Alain de Benoist, cited in Pierre Milza, Facisme français: Passé et Présent (Paris: Flammarion, 1987), 376.
457. See also A.-M. Duranton-Crabol, Visages de la Nouvelle Droite: La GRECE et son histoire (Paris, 1988).
458. Geoffrey Harris, The Dark Side of Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994), 15.
459. Cited in The Economist, October 15, 1994, 68.
460. Quoted in The Independent (London), October 11, 1994.
461. I have examined the events surrounding Fini's rise to power in "Mussolini's Ghost," Tikkun (June-July 1994), 11-16.
462. For an analysis of the pan-European dimensions of the new European right, see Mark Wegierski, "The New Right in Europe," Telos 98-99 (Winter 1993-Spring 1994), 55-70.
463. Pierre-André Taguieff, Sur la Nouvelle droite (Paris: Descartes & cie, 1994), 18. For more on GRECE, see 14-24; Ian R. Barnes, "The Pedigree of GRECE-Part II" in Patterns of Prejudice 15 (1980), 29-39.
464. For a good discussion of Evola's doctrines in relation to Benoist, see Thomas Sheehan, "Myth and Violence: The Fascism of Julius Evola and Alain de Benoist," Social Research (Spring 1981), 45-73.
465. See Alain de Benoist, Comment peut-on être paien? (Paris: Albin Michel, 1981).
466. For Benoist's third worldism, see Europe, Tiers Monde: Meme Combat (Paris: R. Laffont, 1986).
467. On this point see the standard work by Henry Rousso, The Vichy Syndrome (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1991).
468. D. S. Bell, "The French National Front," History of European Ideas, 18(2), 228.
469. Robert de Herte [Alain de Benoist], "Avec les immigrés contre le nouvel esclavage," Eléments pour la civilisation européene, no. 45 (Spring 1983), 2.
470. Jean-Marie Le Pen, "Le Pen et L'Eglise" (interview), National Hebdo, 19 (44) (April 1985), 15.
471. For Foucault's writings on Iran, see "Iran: The Spirit of a World Without Spirit," in Foucault: Politics, Philosophy and Culture (New York: Routledge, 1988).
472. Wolfreys, "An Iron Hand in a Velvet Glove," 424.
473. Christopher Flood, "Organizing Fear and Indignation: The Front National in French Politics," in Fascism's Return: Scandal, Revision, and Ideology Since 1980, ed. R. Golsan (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998), 20-21.
474. Joseph de Maistre, Considerations on the French Revolution, trans. R. Lebrun (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), 97.
475. Cited in M. Vaughan, "The Extreme Right in France: 'Lepénisme' or the Politics of Fear," in Neo-Fascism in Europe, ed. Luciano Cheles et al. (London and New York: Longman, 1991), 221.
476. For more on Barrès, see Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barrès et le nationalisme français (Bruxelles: Editions Complexe, 1985)
477. see also, Michel Winock, Nationalisme, antisémitisme et fascisme en France (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1990).
478. Cited in Winock, Nationalisme, antisémitisme et fascisme en France, 44. See also Paul Massing, Rehearsal for Destruction (New York: Harper and Bros., 1949).
479. On Holocaust denial in France, see Pierre Vidal-Naquet, The Assassins of Memory, trans. J. Mehlman (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
480. Jonathan Marcus, The National Front and French Politics (New York: New York University Press, 1995), 171.
481. See Encounters with the Contemporary Radical Right, ed. P. Merkl and L. Weinberg (Boulder: Westview, 1993), 226.
482. Emmanuel Faux, Thomas Legrand, and Gilles Perez, La Main Droite de dieu (Paris: Le Seuil, 1994).
483. Evidence presented to the EP Committee of Inquiry, Annexe G. Cited in G. Harris, The Dark Side of Europe, 68.
484. Lipset, Political Man (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1981), 489. Also see Thomas Childer's important study, The Nazi Voter (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983).
485. Hans-Georg Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism in Western Europe (New York: St. Martin's, 1994). For one of the best recent characterizations of the new postindustrial condition, see Ulrich Beck, The Risk Society (Newbury Park: SAGE, 1992).
486. Flood, "Organizing Fear and Indignation," 25.
487. See Richard Sennett, The Corrosion of Character: The Personal Consequences of Work in the New Capitalism (New York: Norton, 1998).
488. J. Hage and C. H. Powers, Postindustrial Lives: Roles and Relationships in the 21st Century (Newbury Park: SAGE, 1992), 41.
489. Betz, Radical Right-Wing Populism, 177.
490. Buffon, Histoire naturelle (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1749-61).
491. De Pauw, Recherches I, 26.
492. Durand Echeverria, Mirage in the West: A History of the French Image of American Society to 1815 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 10.
493. De Pauw, Recherches, vol. 3, 10.
494. Federalist, 11.
495. Ceaser, Reconstructing America, 40.
496. George M. Fredrickson, Racism: A Short History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
497. Alan Riding, "Only the French Elite Scorn Mickey's Debut," New York Times, April 13, 1992, A1, A13.
498. Cited in Massimo Boffa, "Maistre," The Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 966.
499. See Schmitt, Political Theology, trans. G. Schwab (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1987).
500. Maistre, Oeuvres complètes (Geneva: Slatkine, 1979), vol. 1, 87
501. Maistre, Considerations on France, trans. R. Lebrun (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), 108.
502. Berlin, The Crooked Timber of Humanity (New York: Vintage, 1992), 127.
503. See also, Stephen Holmes, "Maistre and the Antiliberal Tradition," in The Anatomy of Antiliberalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993), 13-36.
504. Cited in Hermann Rauschning, The Voice of Destruction (New York: Putnam, 1940), 229.
505. Cited in Rauschning, Voice of Destruction, 69.
506. Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of Germanic Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), 131.
507. Nietzsche, The Gay Science, trans. W. Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1974), 258-259, 303.
508. Cited in Ceaser, Reconstructing America, 174.
509. Spengler, Man and Technics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1932), 93-94.
510. Spengler, Year of Decision, 100; Ceaser, Reconstructing America, 179.
511. Spengler, Year of Decision, 68.
512. Ceaser, Reconstructing America, 187.
513. Martin Heidegger, Introduction to Metaphysics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1959), 37.
514. Martin Heidegger, Heraklit, GS 55 (Frankfurt: Klostermann Verlag, 1987), 123.
515. See, for example, the essay, "Creative Landscape: Why Do I Remain in the Provinces?" in the Weimar Sourcebook, ed. E. Dimendberg et al. (Berkeley: University of California, 1994), 426-428.
516. Cited in Günter Moltmann, "Deutscher Antiamerikanisumus heute und früher," in Vom Sinn der Geschichte, ed. Otmar Franz (Stuttgart: Seewald, 1976), 94.
517. The Complete Poems of Heinrich Heine: A Modern English Version, trans. Hal Draper (Boston: Suhrkamp, 1982), 633.
518. Heine, The Romantic School and Other Essays, ed. J. Hermand and R. Holub (New York: Continuum, 1985), 263.
519. See Klaus Schwabe, "Anti-Americanism within the German Right, 1917-1933," in Amerikastudien 21 (1) (1976), 97.
520. Sombart, Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben (Munich and Leipzig, 1918), xiii (emphasis added).
521. See Ulrich Sieg, "Die Verjudung des deutschen Geistes: Ein unbekannter Brief Heideggers," Die Zeit 52, December 29, 1989, 19.
522. Victor Farias, Heidegger et le nazisme (Lagrasse: Editions Verdier, 1987), 235
523. see also Thomas Sheehan, "Heidegger and the Nazis," New York Review of Books, June 15, 1988, 40.
524. Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche: 'God is Dead,'" in The Question Concerning Technology and Other Essays, trans. W. Lovitt (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 112.
525. Theodor Adorno, "The Fetish Character of Music and the Regression of Listening," in The Essential Frankfurt School Reader, ed. A. Arato and E. Gebhardt (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978), 278, 276.
526. Jean Baudrillard, "Simulacra and Simulations," in Selected Writings, ed. M. Poster (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988), 167 (emphasis added).
527. Baudrillard, America, (London: Verso, 1996), 7.
528. Jean Baudrillard, The Illusion of the End, trans. C. Turner (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1994), 64
529. The Gulf War Did Not Take Place, trans. P. Patton (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995).
530. Jean Baudrillard, "Game with Vestiges," in On the Beach 5 (Winter 1984), 24.
531. Baudrillard, America, 34.
532. Ceaser, Reconstructing America, 236.
533. Jean Baudrillard, Simulations (New York: Autonomedia, 1984), 25.
534. See Jean Baudrillard, Revenge of the Crystal (London: Pluto Press, 1990).
535. Jean Baudrillard, "L'Esprit du terrorisme," Le Monde, November 3, 2001. For the English version of Baudrillard's article, see The Spirit of Terrorism and Requiem for the Twin Towers, trans. C. Turner (London: Verso, 2002).
536. Zizek, Welcome to the Desert of the Real: Five Essays on September 11 and Related Dates (London: Verso, 2002).
537. Cited in Ceaser, Reconstructing America, 67.
538. See Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks (New York: International Publishers, 1971).
539. Cited in Martin Jay, The Dialectical Imagination (Boston: Little and Brown, 1973), 173.
540. See Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993).
541. See the discussion of this theme in chapter 6, "Down By Law: Deconstruction and the Problem of Justice." 71. On this subject, see the convincing documentary evidence compiled by Lynn Hunt in The French Revolution and the Birth of Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History (New York: Bedford/St. Martin, 1996).
542. See Michael Walzer, On Toleration (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 91.
543. For one of the best statements of this problem, see Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, trans. W. Rehg (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).