Biophysical and human factors determine the distribution of poached elephants in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya

Pachyderm

Volumn 49, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 48-60

  Kyale, Daniel Muteti ^a   Ngene, Shadrack ^b   Maingi, John ^c  

^a KENYA WILDLIFE SERVICE   (Kenya)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TWENTE   (Netherlands)

^c MIAMI UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Elephant distribution; Mortality; Physical and human factors; Poaching

Indexed keywords

ELEPHANTIDAE;

EID: 80053623806     PISSN: 10262881     EISSN: 16835018     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. AFESG (1997). 'Review of African Elephant Conservation Priorities'. In: C. R. Thouless, (ed.) Working document of the IUCN/SSC African Specialist Group. Nairobi, Kenya: AFESG. (Unpublished)
2. Anonymous (2002). 'Closing in for the Kill? After a decade of quiet, ivory poaching has started again in Kenya'. Economist 363(8273):76-77.
3. Blanc, J.J., Barnes, R.F.W., Craig, G.C., Dublin, H.T., Thouless, C.R., Douglas-Hamilton, I. and Hart, J.A. (2007). A frican Elephant Status Report 2007: an update from the African Elephant Database. Occasional Paper Series of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 33. I. S. A. E. S. Group. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. (Unpublished)
4. Born Free Foundation (2000). "Stop the Clock" Report 4th April 2000. Executive Summary. West Sussex: Born Free Foundation. (Unpublished)
5. Burton, M. (1999). 'An Assessment of Alternative Methods of Estimating the Effects of Ivory Trade Ban on Poaching Effort'. Ecological Economics 30:93-106.
6. Cobb, S. (1976). The abundance and distribution of large herbivores in Tsavo National Park, Kenya. Unpublished PhD dissertation, Oxford University.
7. Cumming, D.H.M, du Toit, R.F. and Stuart S.N. (1990). African Elephants and Rhinos: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. (Unpublished)
8. De Boer, W.F., Ntumi, C.P., Correia, A.U. and Mafuca, J.M. (2000). 'Diet and Distribution in the Maputo Elephant Reserve, Mozambique'. African Journal of Ecology 38:188-201.
9. Demeke, Y. and Bekele, A. (2000). 'Study on the Elephants of Mago National Park, Ethiopia'. Pachyderm 28:32-43.
10. Douglas-Hamilton I., Gachago S., Litoroh M. and Mirangi J. 1994. Tsavo elephant count 1994. Nairobi: Kenya Wildlife Service. (Unpublished)
11. Dublin, H.T., McShane, T.O. and Newby, J. (eds). (1997). Conserving Africa's Elephants: current issues andpriorities for action WWF International, 1196 Gland, Switzerland.
12. Ehrlich, I. (1973). 'Participation in Illegitimate Activities: A Theoretical and Empirical Investigation'. Journal of Political Economy 81 (3):521-566.
13. ESRI (Environmental Systems Research Institute) (2006). ArcGIS: Arc Map Version 9.2. California, USA: ESRI.
14. Estes, R. (1999). The Safari Companion: Guide to watching African mammals including hoofed mammals, carnivores, and primates. White River Junction: Chelsea Green Publishing Company.
15. Hakansson, N. T. (2004). 'The human ecology of world systems in East Africa: The impact of ivory trade.' Human Ecology 32(5):569-591.
16. Hammer, J. (1993). 'The war to save the Tsavo Reserve'. Newsweek 121(15):3-4.
17. Hertberg, R. (2001). 'Impacts of the Ivory Trade Ban on Poaching Incentives: A Numerical example'. Ecological Economics 36:189-195.
18. IUCN (2000). Red list of Endangered Species. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
19. Jachmann, H. and Billiouw, M. (1997). 'Elephant Poaching and Law Enforcement in the Central Luangwa Valley, Zambia'. Journal of Applied Ecology 34(1):233-244.
20. Jyoti, K. and Harford, J. (1996). 'The ivory trade ban: Is it effective?' Ecological Economics 19(2):147-155.
21. Kasiki, S. M. (1998). 'Human-elephant conflict in areas adjacent to the Tsavo National Parks, Kenya'. PhD dissertation, University of Kent.
22. Kenya Wildlife Service 2003. Tsavo East National Park. http://www.kws.org/tsavoeast.htm
23. Kioko, J. M. (2002). Family of ten Elephants Gunned Down in Tsavo East, one Poacher killed, three still on the run. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Wildlife Press Release.
24. Leader-Williams, N., Albon, S. D., and Berry, P.S.M. (1990). 'Illegal Exploitation of Black Rhinoceros and Elephant Populations: Patterns of Decline, Law Enforcement and Patrol Efforts in Luangwa Valley, Zambia'. Journal of Applied Ecology 27(3):1055-1087.
25. Leuthold, W. (1976). 'Group size in elephants of Tsavo National Park and possible factors influencing it'. Journal of Animal Ecology,45(2):425-439.
26. Leuthold, W. (1977). 'Spatial organization and strategy of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park, Kenya'. Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde, 42:358-379.
27. Leuthold, W. and Sale, J. B. (1973). 'Movements and patterns of habitat utilization of elephants in Tsavo National Park, Kenya'. East African Wildlife Journal 11:369-384.
28. Lewis, D. M. (1986). 'Disturbance effects on elephant feeding: evidence for compression in Luangwa Valley, Zambia'. African Journal of Ecology, 24: 227-241.
29. McKnight, B. (2000). 'Changes in Elephant Demography, Reproduction and Group Structure in Tsavo East National Park (1966 - 1994)'. Pachyderm 29:15-24.
30. Milner-Gulland, E. J. and Leader-Williams, N. (1992). 'A Model of Incentives to Illegal Exploitation of Black Rhinos and Elephants: Poaching Pays in Luangwa Valley, Zambia'. Journal of Applied Ecology 29(2):388-401.
31. Mitchell, A. (2005). The ESRI guide to GIS analysis: Volume 2, spatial measurements and statistics. ESRI Press, Ridland, California, USA.
32. Mukeka, J. (2010). 'Analyzing the distribution of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) in Tsavo, Kenya'. M.Sc thesis, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA.
33. Ngene, S.M., Skidmore, A.K., Gils, H., Douglas-Hamilton, I. and Omondi, P. (2009). 'Elephant distribution around a volcanic shield dominated by a mosaic of forest-savannah (Marsabit, Kenya)'. Afr. J. Ecol. 47:234-245.
34. Oindo, B.O., Skidmore, A.K. and de Salvo, P. (2003). 'Mapping habitat and biological diversity in the Maasai Mara ecosystem'. International Journal of Remote Sensing 24(5):1053-1069.
35. Omondi, P.O., King, J., Bitok, E. and Geddes, C. (2002). 'Total aerial count of elephants and buffalo in the Tsavo/Mkomazi ecosystem'. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Wildlife Service. (Unpublished)
36. Omondi, P. and Bitok, E. (2005). Total Aerial Count ofElephants, Buffalo & other species in the Tsavo/ Mkomazi Ecosystem. Nairobi, Kenya: Kenya Wildlife Service. (Unpublished)
37. Ottichilo, W. K. (1987). 'The cause ofthe recent heavy elephant mortality in the Tsavo ecosystem, Kenya, 1975-80'. Biological Conservation 41:279-289.
38. Pearce, F. (2004). 'Ivory sale fuels illegal trade fears'. New Scientist 181:2439.
39. Pilgram, T. and Western, D. (1986). 'Inferring Hunting Patterns on African Elephant from Tusks in the International Ivory Trade'. Journal of Applied Ecology 23(2):503-514.
40. Robinson, S. (2000). 'Dying for Ivory: Even African conservationists cannot agree on how best to protect elephant populations from the threat of poachers'. Time Europe 155(15):44-45.
41. Ruggiero, R. (1990). The effects of poaching disturbance on elephant behaviour. Pachyderm 13:42-44.
42. Smith, R. J. and Kasiki, S. (2000). A Spatial Analysis of Human-Elephant Conflict in the Tsavo Ecosystem, Kenya. AfESG Report. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
43. Thouless, C.R., King, J., Omondi, P., Kahumbu, P. and Douglas-Hamilton, I. (2008). The status of Kenya's elephants. Nairobi, Kenya: Save the Elephant.
44. Tolvanen, R. (2004). Nature Conservation Areas in Kenya - Tsavo East and West National Parks. In: Pellikka, P. J., Ylhaisi and Clark, B. (eds). Taita Hills and Kenya - Seminar, Reports and Journal of a Field Excursion to Kenya. Helsinki, Finland: Expedition Reports of the Department of Geography, University of Helsinki 40:59-63.
45. Verlinden, A. and Gavor, I.K.N. (1998). 'Satellite Tracking of Elephants in Northern Botswana'. African Journal of Ecology 36:105-116.
46. Wijgaarden, W. (1985). Elephants - trees-grazers: Relationship between climate, soil, vegetation and large herbivores in a semi-arid ecosystem (Tsavo, Kenya). ITC Publication #4.