Problem ferns: Their impact and management

Fern Ecology

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 255-322

  Robinson, Roderick C ^a   Sheffield, Elizabeth ^b   Sharpe, Joanne M ^c  

^a Landward Consultancy Shinglebeck Leavening ^*  (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^c Sharplex Services   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 80053254900     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511844898.009     Document Type: Chapter

References (201)

1. Aguraiuja, R. and Wood, K. R. (2003). Diellia mannii (D. C. Eaton) Robins (Aspleniaceae) rediscovered in Hawai‘i. American Fern Journal, 93, 154-6.
2. Alford, D. V. and Backhaus, G. F. (eds.) (2005). Introduction and Spread of Invasive Species. BCPC Symposium Proceedings, 93. Alton, Hampshire, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
3. Alonso-Amelot, M. E., Castillo, U., Smith, B. L. and Lauren, D. R. (1996). Bracken ptaquiloside in milk. Nature, 382, 587.
4. Alonso-Amelot, M. E., Oliveiros, A., Calcagno, M. P. and Arellano, E. (2001). Bracken adaptation mechanisms and xenobiotic chemistry. Pure and Applied Chemistry, 73, 549-53.
5. Anonymous (1988). Bracken in Wales. In Bracken in Wales: an Interagency Report on its Status in the Principality, with Recommendations, ed. Senior Technical Officer’s Group, Wales. Bangor, UK: Nature Conservancy Council, p. 16.
6. Anonymous (1996). Horsetail (Equisetum): Weed Control Factsheet. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Canada. www.agf.gov.bc.ca/cropprot/hrsetail.htm. Viewed March 2009.
7. Anonymous (1999). Noosa National Park Management Plan. Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, Australia. www.epa.qld.gov.au/register/p00207aa.pdf. Viewed September 2009.
8. Anonymous (2000). Mapele (Cyrtandra cyaneoides). In Beacham’s Guide to the Endangered Species of North America. www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0193-8521_ITM. Viewed March 2009.
9. Anonymous (2001). Recovery Plan for the Giant Fern (Angiopteris evecta). NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service, Hurstville, Australia. www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/approvedAngevect.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
10. Anonymous (2003). Biological Control of Weeds in Texas: Salvinia Stem Borer. Texas A&MUniversityDepartmentofEntomology, CollegeStation, TX, USA. http://bc4weeds.tamu.edu/agents/salviniastemborer.html. Viewed March 2009.
11. Anonymous (2004a). Azolla filiculoides, Water Fern. Information Sheet 22. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, UK. www.ceh.ac.uk/sections/wq/documents/22%20Azolla%20filiculoides.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
12. Anonymous (2004b). Weevils of Mass Destruction. British Waterways press release. www.british-waterways.org/newsroom/all-press-releases/display/id/1625. Viewed March 2009.
13. Anonymous (2005). Salvinia molesta. Global Invasive Species Database. Invasive Species Specialised Group. www.issg.org/database/species/impact_info.asp?si=569&fr=120&sts=&lang=EN. Viewed March 2009.
14. Anonymous (2006). Twite (Carduelis flavirostris): Species Action Plan. Northern Ireland Environment and Heritage Service. www.ni-environment.gov.uk/twiteniactionplanwebversionapril06.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
15. Anonymous (2007). Rainforest Fernland: Threatened Native Vegetation Community Information Sheet. Tasmania Forest Authority, Hobart, Australia. www.fpa.tas.gov.au/fileadmin/user_upload/PDFs/Botany/rainforest_fernland_info_sheet_FE.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
16. Anonymous (2008a). Weed of the Week: Mule’s Foot Fern (Angiopteris evecta). Kauai Community Radio and Kauai Invasive Species Committee. www.hawaiiinvasivespecies.org/iscs/kisc/wow.html. Viewed March 2009.
17. Anonymous (2008b). Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions towards an EU strategy on invasive species. Com(2008) 789 final. European Council, Brussels. www.parliament.bg/pub/ECD/COM_2008_789_EN_ACTE_f.doc. Viewed March 2009.
18. Backshall, J. (1999). Managing bracken in the English uplands. Enact, 7, 7-9.
19. Biggin, P. (1982). Forestry and bracken. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 81B, 19-27.
20. Bond, W., Davies, G. and Turner, R. (2006). The Biology and Non-chemical Control of Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn). Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA), Coventry, UK. www.gardenorganic.org.uk/organicweeds. Viewed March 2009.
21. Bondada, B. R. and Ma, L. Q. (2003). Tolerance of heavy metals in vascular plants: arsenic hyperaccumulation by Chinese brake fern (Pteris vittata L.). In Pteridology in the New Millenium, ed. S. Chandra and M. Srivastava. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 397-420.
22. Borges, P. A. V., Cunha, R., Gabriel, R., et al. (eds.) (2005). A List of the Terrestrial Fauna and Flora of the Azores. Horta, Angra do Heroísmo and Ponta Delgada, Azores: Direcção Regional do Ambiente and Universidade dos Açores.
23. Boughey, A. S. (1963). The explosive development of floating vegetation on Lake Kariba. Adansonia, 3, 49-61.
24. Brereton, T. M. and Warren, M. S. (1999). Ecology of the pearl bordered fritillary butterfly in Scotland and possible threats from bracken eradication measures in woodland grant schemes. In Bracken Perceptions and Bracken Control in the British Uplands. International Bracken Group Special Publication, 93, pp. 62-73.
25. Brinkhuis, H., Schouten, S., Collinson M. E., et al. and the Expedition 302 Scientists. (2006). Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean. Nature, 441, 606-9.
26. Brown, R. W. (1986). Bracken in the North York Moors: its ecological and amenity implications in national parks. In Bracken: Ecology, Land Use and Control Technology, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon, pp. 77-86.
27. Burn, A. (1988). Bracken and nature conservation. In Bracken in Wales: an Interagency Report on its Status in the Principality, with Recommendations, ed. Senior Technical Officer’s Group, Wales. Bangor, UK: Nature Conservancy Council, Annex 4, pp. 47-55.
28. Calcagno-Pisarelli, M. P., Avila-Nunez, J. L., Otero, L. D., Silmi, S. and Naya, M. (2006). Bionomy of Aneugmenus merida (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), a new natural enemy of bracken from the Venezuelan Andes. Paper presented at International Symposium on Intractable Weeds and Plant Invaders, Ponta Delgada, Azores, Portugal. Programme Abstracts, p. 38.
29. Callaghan, T. V. and Sheffield, E. (1985). Pteridium aquilinum: weed or resource? Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 93, 461.
30. Callaghan, T. V., Lawson, G. J. L. and Scott, R. (1981). Bracken as an Energy Crop: Current Scenarios and Future Research Requirements. ITE Project 674 to the Department of Energy. Grange-over-Sands, UK: Merlewood Research Station, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology.
31. Caulton, E., Keddie, S. and Dyer, A. F. (1995). The incidence of airborne spores of bracken in the rooftop airstream over Edinburgh. In Bracken: an Environmental Issue, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 82-9.
32. Christenhusz, M. J. M. and Toivonen, T. K. (2007). Giants invading the tropics: the oriental vessel fern, Angiopteris evecta (Marattiaceae). Biological Invasions, 10, 1215-28.
33. Cohen, A. L., Singhakumara, B. M. P. and Ashton, P. N. S. (1995). Releasing rain forest succession: a case study in the Dicranopteris linearis fernlands of Sri Lanka. Restoration Ecology, 3, 261-70.
34. Davis, A. P. (1999). The Genus Galanthus: A Botanical Magazine Monograph. Portland, OR, USA: Timber Press.
35. Day, R. H., Cooper, B. A. and Blaha, R. F. (2003). Movement patterns of Hawaiian petrels and Newell’s shearwaters on the Island of Hawaii. Pacific Science, 57, 147-59.
36. Den Ouden, J. (2000). The role of bracken in forest dynamics. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis (2868), Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
37. De Winter, W. P., and Amoroso, V. B. (eds.) (2003). Cryptogams: Ferns and Fern Allies, Plant Resources of South-East Asia, 15. Leiden, The Netherlands: Backhuys.
38. Donnelly, E. (2003). Potential uses of bracken in organic agriculture in Scotland. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Aberdeen, Scotland.
39. Donnelly, E. (2004). A frond friend. Organic Farming, 81, 30-1.
40. Durand, L. Z. and Goldstein, G. (2001). Photosynthesis, photoinhibition, and nitrogen use efficiency in native and invasive tree ferns in Hawaii. Oecologia, 126, 345-54.
41. Dyatlov, S. and Vasilieva, T. (2008). Salvinia natans. www.grid.unep.ch/bsein/redbook/txt/ salvinia.htm. Viewed March 2009.
42. Elder, H. (2004). Giant Salvinia Infestation in Toledo Bend Poses Threat to Sam Rayburn. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Austin, TX, USA. http://salvinia.er.usgs.gov/Salvinia_Advisory.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
43. Evans, I. A. (1986). The carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic toxicity of bracken. In Bracken: Ecology, Land Use and Control Technology, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon, pp. 139-46.
44. Evans, W. C. (1986). The acute diseases caused by bracken in animals. In Bracken: Ecology, Land Use and Control Technology, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon, pp. 121-32.
45. Evans, W. C., Patel, M. C. and Kooby, Y. (1982). Acute bracken poisoning in homogastric and ruminant animals. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 81B, 29-64.
46. Fagan, R., McQuinn, A. D. and Mesch, P. (1990). Environmental and spray factors influencing control of bracken by boom spray applications of Brush-Off brush controller in Australia. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 40, pp. 303-8.
47. Filizadeh, Y. and Zolfinejad, K. (2006). Evaluation of excessive growth of Azolla and its control in the north of Iran. Paper presented at International Symposium on Intractable Weeds and Plant Invaders, Ponta Delgada, Azores, Portugal. Programme Abstracts, p. 23.
48. Fowler, S. V. (1993). The potential for control of bracken in the UK using introduced herbivorous insects. Pesticide Science, 37, 393-7.
49. Francesconi, K., Visoottiviseth, P., Sridokchan, W. and Goessler, W. (2002). Arsenic species in an arsenic hyperaccumulating fern, Pityrogramma calomelanos: a potential phytoremediator of arsenic-contaminated soils. Science of the Total Environment, 284, 27-35.
50. Gilman, E. F. (1999). Sphaeropteris cooperi: Australian Tree Fern. Fact Sheet FPS-557. Gainsville, FL, USA: University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
51. Gliessman, S. R. (1978). The establishment of bracken following fire in tropical habitats. American Fern Journal, 68, 41-4.
52. Glomski, L. A. M. and Getsinger, K. D. (2006). Carfentrazone-ethyl for control of Giant Salvinia. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 44, 136-8.
53. Goolsby, J. A., Wright, D. and Pemberton, R. W. (2003). Exploratory surveys in Australia and Asia for natural enemies of Old World Climbing Fern, Lygodium microphyllum. Biological Control, 28, 33-46.
54. Goolsby, J. A., Zonneveld, R. and Bourne, A. (2004). Pre-release assessment of impact on biomass production of an invasive weed, Lygodium microphyllum, by a potential biological control agent, Floracarus perrepae. Environmental Entomology, 33, 997-1002.
55. Hartig, K. and Beck, E. (2003). The bracken fern dilemma in the Andes of southern Ecuador. Ecotropica, 9, 3-13.
56. Hawaiian Ecosystems at Risk Project (2008). Global Compendium of Weeds. www.hear.org/gcw. Viewed March 2009.
57. Hendrix, S. D. (1977). The resistance of Pteridium aquilinum to insect attack by Trichloplusia ni. Oecologia 26, 347-61.
58. Hirayama, T. (1979). Diet and cancer. Nutrition and Cancer, 1, 67-81.
59. Holloway, S. M. (1994). Bracken stand characterization on the North York moors: a study of the rhizome and leaf system with regard to a large scale control programme. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Plymouth, UK.
60. Horning, D. S. (1983). A new fern record from the Snares, southern New Zealand. New Zealand Journal Botany, 21, 205-8.
61. Hoshizaki, B. J. and Moran, R. C. (2001). The Fern Grower’s Manual. Portland, OR, USA: Timber Press.
62. Howell, R. (1988). Bracken and water. In Bracken in Wales: an Interagency Report on its Status in the Principality, with Recommendations, ed. Senior Technical Officer’s Group, Wales. Bangor, UK: Nature Conservancy Council, Annex 7, pp. 67-71.
63. Hubbard, C. E. (1968). Grasses, 2nd edn. Baltimore, MD, USA: Penguin Books.
64. Hussner, A. and Lösch, R. (2005). Alien aquatic plants in a thermally abnormal river and their assembly to neophyte-dominated macrophyte stands (River Erft, Northrhine- Westphalia). Limnologica, 35, 18-30.
65. Hutchinson, J., Ferriter, A., Serbesoff-King, K., Langeland, K. and Rodgers, L. (eds.) (2006). Old World Climbing Fern (Lygodium microphyllum) Management Plan for Florida, 2nd edn. Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council Lygodium Task Force, West Palm Beach, FL, USA. www.fleppc.org/publications.htm. Viewed March 2009.
66. Ingrouille, M. (1992). Diversity and Evolution of Land Plants. London: Chapman and Hall.
67. Irvine, J. I. M., Burge, M. N. and McElwee, M. (1987). Association of Phoma aquilina and Ascochyta pteridis with curl-tip disease of bracken. Annals of Applied Biology, 110, 25-31.
68. Jacono, C. C. (2002). Four Leaf Unlucky? Non-indigenous Water Clovers. US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA. http://nas.er.usgs.gov/taxgroup/plants/docs/marsilea/marsilea.html. Viewed March 2009.
69. Jacono, C. C. (2003). Salvinia minima. US Geological Survey, Reston, VA, USA. http://salvinia.er.usgs.gov/html/identification1.html. Viewed March 2009.
70. Jacono, C. C. (2006). Giant Salvinia is an Aquatic Fern Prohibited in the United States by Federal Law. A flyer from the US Geological Survey and the Mississippi Dept. of Marine Resources. www.dmr.state.ms.us/misc/species-of-concern/salvinia-flyer.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
71. Jayachandran, K., Shetty, K. G., Clarke, T. C., Smith, C. S., Miao, S. and Rodgers, L. (2008). Development of potential biological control agents for invasive plant species using native pathogens in south Florida. In GEER 2008. Naples, FL, USA: Greater Everglades Ecosystem Restoration, Abstracts, p. 194.
72. Jones, D. L. and Clemesha, S. C. (1980). Australian Ferns and Fern Allies. Sydney, Australia: A. H. and A. W. Reed.
73. Julien, M. H., Center, T. D. and Tipping, P. W. (2002). Floating Fern (Salvinia). In Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States, ed. R. Van Driesche, S. Lyon, B. Blossey, M. Hoddle and R. Reardon. Morgantown, WV, USA: USDA Forest Service, Publication, FHTET-2002-04, pp. 17-32.
74. Keary, I. P., Thomas, C. and Sheffield, E. (2000). The effects of the herbicide asulam on the gametophytes of Pteridium aquilinum, Cryptogamma crispa and Dryopteris filix-mas. Annals of Botany, 93 (Suppl. B), 47-51.
75. Kirk, A. A. (1977). The insect fauna of the weed Pteridium aquilinum in Papua New Guinea: a potential source of biological control agents. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 16, 403-7.
76. Knapp, M. F. (2005). Diffuse pollution threats to groundwater: a UK water company perspective. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrology, 38, 39-51.
77. Kolar, C. S. and Lodge, D. M. (2001). Progress in invasion biology: predicting invaders. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 16, 199-204.
78. Kumar, P. S., Ramani, S. and Singh, S. P. (2005). Natural suppression of the aquatic weed, Salvinia molesta, by two previously unreported fungal pathogens. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 43, 105-7.
79. Kuroda, A., Ikeda, S., Mukai, S. and Toyohara, G. (2006). Successive mapping of secondary pine forests affected by pine wilt disease and subsequent forest management in Miyajima Island, SW Japan. Phytocoenologia, 36, 191-212.
80. Kurugundla, C. N., and Serumola, O. (2007). Impacts of deltamethrin spray on adults of the Giant Salvinia biocontrol agent, Cyrtobagous salviniae. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 45, 124-9.
81. Lawrie, J. and Butler, R. C. (1995). Study of the low dose stimulation of buds and rhizome growth in bracken using a peaked logistic curve. BCPC Weeds, 3, 1003-8.
82. Lawson, G. J., Callaghan, T. V. and Scott, R. (1986). Bracken as an energy resource. In Bracken: Ecology, Land Use and Control Technology, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon, pp. 239-47.
83. Lawton, J. H. (1990). Developments in the UK biological control programme for bracken. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 93, pp. 309-14.
84. Le Duc, M. G., Pakeman, R. J. and Marrs, R. H. (2007). A restoration experiment on moorland infested by Pteridium aquilinum: plant species responses. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 93, 53-9.
85. Lockhart, C. (2007). Statewide Lygodium Treatment Site Evaluation Project. Florida Natural Areas Inventory, Tallahassee, FL, USA. www.fnai.org. Viewed March 2009.
86. Lott, M. S., Volin, J. C., Pemberton, R. W. and Austin, D. F. (2003). The reproductive biology of the invasive ferns Lygodium microphyllym and L. japonicum: implications for invasive potential. American Journal of Botany, 93, 1144-52.
87. Low, V. H. K. and Thomson J. A. (1990). Cyanogenesis in Australian bracken (Pteridium esculentum): distribution of cyanogenic phenotypes and factors influencing activity of the cyanogenic glucosidase. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia. Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 93, pp. 105-11.
88. Lowday, J. E. and Marrs, R. H. (1992). Control of bracken and the restoration of heathland. III. Bracken litter disturbance and heathland restoration. Journal of Applied Ecology, 29, 212-7.
89. Lumpkin, T. A. and Plucknett, D. L. (1980). Azolla: botany, physiology and uses as a green manure. Economic Botany, 34, 111-53.
90. Ma, L. Q., Komar, K. M., Tu, C., et al. (2001). A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic. Nature, 409, 579.
91. Ma, L. Q., Luongo, T., Srivastava, M. and Singh, N. (2006). Contaminant Removal by Additional Ferns, Official Gazette of the United States and Trademark Office Patents, June 27.
92. Mabey, R. (1998). Flora Britannica: The Concise Edition. London: Chatto and Windus.
93. Macdonald, A. (1887). The Improvement of Hill Pasture Without Breaking It Up. Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. www.electricscotland.com/agriculture/page72.htm. Viewed March 2009.
94. MacDonald, G., Sellers, B., Langeland, K., Duperron-Bond, T. and Ketterer-Guest, E. (2008). Chinese Ladder Brake Fern (Pteris vittata): Invasive Species Management Plans for Florida. Gainesville, FL, USA: Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants, University of Florida.
95. MacLochlainn, C. (2004). Farmland Birds on Cape Clear Island, West Cork. Message held by ListServ archives for Heanet (Ireland’s National Education and Research Network). http://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin. Viewed March 2009.
96. Madsen, J. D. and Wersal, R. M. (2008). Growth regulation of Salvinia molesta by pH and available water column nutrients. Journal of Freshwater Ecology, 23, 305-14.
97. Marliere, C. A., Wathern, P., Freitas, S. N., Castro, M. C. F. M. and Galvao, M. A. M. (2000). Bracken fern consumption and oesophageal and stomach cancer in the Ouro Preto region, Minas Gerais, Brazil. In Bracken Fern: Toxicity, Biology and Control, ed. J. A. Taylor and R. T. Smith. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 144-9.
98. Marinelli, J. (ed.) (2004). Plant. London: The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and Dorling Kindersley.
99. Marrs, R. H., Frost, A. J., Plant, R. A. and Lunnis, P. (1993). Determination of buffer zones to protect seedlings of non-target plants from the effects of glyphosate spray drift. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 43, 283-93.
100. Marrs, R. H. and Watt, A. S. (2006). Biological flora of the British Isles: Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Journal of Ecology, 93, 1272-321.
101. Marrs, R. H., Le Duc, M. G., Mitchell, R. J., et al. (2000). The ecology of bracken: its role in succession and implications for control. Annals of Botany, 93 (Suppl. B), 3-15.
102. Mason, R. (2004). Growing Native Plants: Platycerium bifurcatum. Australian National Botanic Gardens, Australian National Herbarium, Canberra. www.anbg.gov.au/gnp/interns-2004/platycerium-bifurcatum.html. Viewed March 2009.
103. McConnachie, A. J., de Wit, M. P., Hill, M. P. and Byrne, M. J. (2003). Economic evaluation of the biological control of Azolla filiculoides in South Africa. Biological Control, 28, 25-32.
104. McConnachie, A. J., Hill, M. P. and Byrne, M. J. (2004). Field assessment of a frond-feeding weevil, a successful control agent of red waterfern, Azolla filiculoides, in southern Africa. Biological Control, 29, 326-31.
105. McElwee, M. and Burge, M. N. (1990). Lignification and associated disease resistance in bracken. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia. Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 93, pp. 315-22.
106. McFarland, D. G., Nelson, L. S., Grodowitz, M. J., Smart, R. M. and Owens, C. S. (2004). Salvinia molesta (Giant Salvinia) in the United States: A Review of Species Ecology and Approaches to Management. US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA, Special Report, 04-02. www.erdc.usace.army.mil. Viewed March 2009.
107. McIntosh, D., King, C. and Fitzsimmons, K. (2003). Tilapia for biological control of Giant Salvinia. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 41, 28-31.
108. Medeiros, A. C., Loope, L. L., Flynn, T., et al. (1992). Notes on the status of an invasive Australian tree fern (Cyathea cooperi) in Hawaiian rain forests. American Fern Journal, 82, 27-33.
109. Mehltreter, K. (2006). Leaf phenology of the climbing fern Lygodium venustum in a semideciduous lowland forest on the Gulf of Mexico. American Fern Journal, 93, 21-30.
110. Miller, J. and Sheffield, E. (2004). Controlling Kariba weed. Biological Sciences Review, 17, 39-41.
111. Moran, R. C. (2004). A Natural History of Ferns. Portland, OR, USA: Timber Press.
112. Motooka, P., Castro, L., Nelson, D., Nagai, G. and Ching, L. (2003). Weeds of Hawaii‘s Pastures and Natural Areas; An Identification and Management Guide. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa. http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/invweed/WeedsHI/W_Sphaeropteris_cooperi pdf. Viewed March 2009.
113. Muchovej, J. J. (1979) Dreschlera salviniae: a new species from Brazil. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 93, 331-2.
114. Muchovej, J. J. and Kushalappa, A. C. (1979). Dreschlera leaf spot of Salvinia auriculata. Plant Disease Reporter, 63, 154.
115. Negishi, J. N., Sidle, R. C., Noguchi, S., Nik, A. R. and Stanforth, R. (2006). Ecological roles of the roadside fern (Dicranopteris curranii) on logging road recovery in Peninsular Malaysia: preliminary results. Forest Ecology and Management, 224, 176-86.
116. Nelson, G. (2000). The Ferns of Florida: a Reference and Field Guide. Sarasota, FL, USA: Pineapple Press.
117. Nicholls, D. (1999). Ferns and Fern Allies in the Canberra Region: Histiopteris incisa, Bat’s Wing Fern. www.home.aone.net.au/~byzantium/ferns/descriptions/histiopteris/histiopt.html. Viewed March 2009.
118. Oates, M. (2004). The ecology of the pearl bordered fritillary in woodland. British Wildlife, 15, 229-36.
119. Oduro, C., Newman, J. and Hatcher, P. E. (2006). Controlling Azolla ficiluloides using Artemisia dracunculus and A. vulgaris leaf extracts. Paper presented at International Symposium on Intractable Weeds and Plant Invaders, Ponta Delgada, Azores, Portugal. Programme Abstracts, p. 34.
120. Orr, D. (2008). Marsilea villosa. Center for Plant Conservation, St. Louis, MO, USA. www.centerforplantconservation.org/ASP. Viewed March 2009.
121. Ortega, F. J. M. (1994). Ethnobotanical notes on the bracken fern in the Amazon region and possible carcinogenic risks. BioLlania, 10, 7-12.
122. Owens, C. S., Smart, R. M., Honnell, D. R. and Dick, G. O. (2005). Effects of pH on growth of Salvinia molesta. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 43, 34-8.
123. Page, C. N. (1982). The history and spread of bracken in Britain. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 81B, 3-10.
124. Pakeman, R. J. and Marrs, R. H. (1992). The conservation value of bracken-dominated communities in the UK, and an assessment of the ecological impact of bracken expansion or its removal. Biological Conservation, 62, 101-14.
125. Pakeman, R. J., Hill, M. O. and Marrs, R. H. (1995). Modelling vegetation succession after bracken control. Journal of Environmental Management, 43, 29-39.
126. Pakeman, R. J., Marrs, R. H., Howard, D. C., Barr, C. J. and Fuller, R. M. (1996). The bracken problem in Great Britain, its present extent and future changes. Applied Geography, 16, 65-86.
127. Palmer, D. D. (2003). Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. Honolulu, HI, USA: University of Hawaii Press.
128. Pamukcu, A. M., Ertürk, E., Milli, U. and Bryan, G. T. (1978). Carcinogenic and mutagenic activities of milk from cows fed bracken fern. Cancer Research, 38, 1556-60.
129. Pandey, D. K. (1994). Inhibition of salvinia (Salvinia molesta Mitchell) by parthenium (Parthenium hysterophorus). II. Relative effect of flower, leaf, stem, and root residue on Salvinia and paddy. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 20, 3123-31.
130. Parry, J. (2003). Living Landscapes: Heathland. London: The National Trust.
131. Patrick, B. (1994). Antipodes island Lepidoptera. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 24, 91-116.
132. Pemberton, R. W. and Ferriter, A. P. (1998). Old World Climbing Fern (Lygodium microphyllum), a dangerous invasive weed in Florida. American Fern Journal, 88, 165-75.
133. Pemberton, R. W., Goolsby, J. A. and Wright, T. (2002a). Old World Climbing Fern. In Biological Control of Invasive Plants in the Eastern United States, ed. R. Van Driesche, S. Lyon, B. Blossey, M. Hoddle, M. and R. Reardon. Morgantown, WV, USA. USDA Forest Service, Publication, FHTET-2002-04, pp. 139-47.
134. Pemberton, R. W., Goolsby, J. A., Wright, T. and Buckingham, G. R. (2002b). Getting on Top of Climbing Ferns. CABI Biocontrol News and Information, 93. www.pestscience. com/Bni23-3/Gennews.htm. Viewed March 2009.
135. Pinto, C., Januário, T., Geraldes, M., et al. (2004). Bovine enzootic haematuria on São Miguel Island, Azores. In Poisonous Plants and Related Toxins, ed. T. Acamovic, C. S. Stewart, and T. W. Pennycott. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium of Poisonous Plants, Glasgow, UK, 2001. Wallingford, UK: CAB International Publishing, pp. 564-74.
136. Pitman, R. and Webber, J. (1998). Bracken as a Peat Alternative. Forestry Authority Information Note. Edinburgh, UK: Forestry Commission
137. Proctor, G. R. (1989). Ferns of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 53, 1-389.
138. Rasmussen, L. H. (2003). Ptaquiloside: an environmental hazard? Occurrence and fate of a bracken toxin in terrestrial environments. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Royal Veterinary and Agriculture University, Copenhagen, Denmark.
139. Rasmussen, L. H., Jensen, L. S. and Hansen, H. C. B. (2003). Distribution of the carcinogenic terpene ptaquiloside in bracken fronds, rhizomes and litter in Denmark. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29, 771-8.
140. Rasmussen, L. H., Lauren, D. R. and Hansen, H. C. B. (2005). Sorption, degradation and mobility of ptaquiloside, a carcinogenic bracken constituent, in the soil environment. Chemosphere, 58, 823-35.
141. Rayamajhi, M. B., Pemberton, R. W., Van, T. K. and Pratt, P. D. (2005). First report of infection of Lygodium microphyllum by Puccinia lygodii, a potential biocontrol agent of an invasive fern in Florida. Plant Disease, 89, 110.
142. Richerson, M. M. and Jacono, C. C. (2005). Salvinia molesta at Enchanted Lake, Kailua, on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii. US Geological Survey. http://salvinia.er.usgs.gov/html/enchanted_lake.html. Viewed March 2009.
143. Riches, C. R. (ed.) (2001). The World’s Worst Weeds. BCPC Symposium Proceedings 77. Alton, Hampshire, UK: British Crop Protection Council.
144. Robinson, R. C. (2007). Steps to more effective bracken management. Aspects of Applied Biology, 82, 143-55.
145. Robinson, R. C. (2008). Bracken: a competitive stakeholder in the uplands. Aspects of Applied Biology, 85, 7-84.
146. Robinson, R. C. and Page, C. N. (2000). Protection of non-target ferns during extensive spraying of bracken. In Bracken Fern: Toxicity, Biology and Control, ed. J. A. Taylor and R. T. Smith. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 163-74.
147. Robinson, R. C., Parsons, R. G., Barbe, G., Patel, P. T. and Murphy, S. (2000). Buffer zones for helicopter spraying of bracken. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 79, 215-31.
148. Ruder, K. (2004). Ferns Remove Arsenic From Soil And Water. Genome News Network. www.middleport-future.com/cig/docs/library/gnn.phyto.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
149. Russell, A. E., Raich, J. W. and Vitousek, P. M. (1998). The ecology of the climbing fern Dicranopteris linearis on windward Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Journal of Ecology, 86, 765-79.
150. Rymer, L. (1976). The history and ethnobotany of bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 73, 151-76.
151. Sabbatini, M. R., Murphy, K. J. and Irigoyen, J. H. (1998). Vegetation-environment relationships in irrigation channel systems of southern Argentina. Aquatic Botany, 60, 119-33.
152. Shaw, M. W. (1988). Ecology of bracken in relation to control methods. In Bracken in Wales: an Interagency Report on its Status in the Principality, with Recommendations, ed. Senior Technical Officer’s Group, Wales. Bangor, UK: Nature Conservancy Council, Annex 2B, pp. 30-43.
153. Shaw, R. H., Reeder, R. H., Bacon, E. and Oduro, C. (2006). Biological control of a safe and effective alternative for the management of Azolla filiculoides. Paper presented at International Symposium on Intractable Weeds and Plant Invaders, Ponta Delgada, Azores, Portugal. Programme Abstracts, p. 24.
154. Sheaves, B. J. and Brown, R. W. (1995a). Densities of Ixodes ricinus ticks on moorland vegetation communities in the UK. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 19, 489-97.
155. Sheaves, B. J. and Brown, R. W. (1995b). A zoonosis as a human health hazard in UK moorland recreational areas: a case study of Lyme disease. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 38, 201-14.
156. Sheffield, E. (2002). Effects of asulam on non-target pteridophytes. Fern Gazette, 16, 377-82.
157. Sheffield, E., Wolf, P. G. and Ranker, T. A. (1995). Genetic analysis of bracken in the Hawaiian Islands. In Bracken: an Environmental Issue, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 29-32.
158. Sheffield, E., Johns, M., Rumsey, F. J. and Rowntree, J. K. (2003). An Investigation of the Effects of Low Doses of Asulox on Non-target Species. English Nature Contracts EIT20-19-001 and 30-08-007.
159. Silvester, W. B. (1964). Forest regeneration problems in the Hunua range, Auckland. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society, 11, 1-5.
160. Simán, S. E., Povey, A. C. and Sheffield, E. (1999). Human heath risks from fern spores? A review. Fern Gazette 15, 275-87.
161. Simán, S. E., Povey, A. C., Ward, T. H., Margison, G. P. and Sheffield, E. (2000). Fern spore extracts can damage DNA. British Journal of Cancer, 83, 69-73.
162. Smith, B. L., Lauren, D. L. and Prakash, A. S. (2000). Bracken fern: toxicity in animal and human health. In Bracken Fern: Toxicity, Biology and Control, ed. J. A. Taylor and R. T. Smith. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 76-85.
163. Somvanshi, R., Lauren, D. R., Smith, B. L., et al. (2006). Estimation of the fern toxin, ptaquiloside, in certain Indian ferns other than bracken. Current Science, 91, 1547-52.
164. Srivastava, K. (2008). Conservation and management plans for Angiopteris evecta: an endangered species. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA, Ethnobotanical Leaflets, 12, 23-8. http://www.ethnoleaflets.com//leaflets/pteris.htm. Viewed March 2009.
165. Tan, R. (2001). Resam (Dicranopteris linearis). Mangrove and wetland wildlife at Sungei Buloh Wetlands Reserve, Singapore. www.naturia.per.sg/buloh/plants/resam.htm. Viewed March 2009.
166. Taylor, J. A. (1980). Bracken: an increasing problem and a threat to health. Outlook on Agriculture, 10, 298-304.
167. Taylor, J. A. (1985). The bracken problem: a local hazard and global issue. In Bracken: Ecology, Land Use and Control Technology, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Carnforth, UK: Parthenon, pp. 21-42.
168. Taylor, J. A. (1989). The British bracken problem. Geography Review, 2, 7-11.
169. Taylor, J. A. (1990). The bracken problem: a global perspective. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 93, pp. 3-19.
170. Taylor, J. E. and Thomson, J. A. (1990). Allelopathic activity of leaf run-off from Pteridium esculentum. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 93, pp. 203-8.
171. Taylor, J. E. and Thomson, J. A. (1998). Bracken litter as mulch: glasshouse evaluation of phytotoxicity. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 38, 161-9.
172. Tet-Vun, C. and Ismail, B. S. (2006). Field evidence for the allelopathic properties of Dicranopteris linearis. Weed Biology and Management, 6, 59-67.
173. Thomson, J. A. (2004). Towards a taxonomic revision of Pteridium (Dennstaedtiaceae). Telopea, 10, 798-803.
174. Tipping, P. W. and Center, T. D. (2003). Cyrtobagous salviniae (Coleoptera: Curulionidae) successfully overwinters in Texas and Louisiana. Florida Entomologist, 86, 92-3.
175. Tyler, S. J. (1988). Birds and bracken in Wales. In Bracken in Wales: an Interagency Report on its Status in the Principality, with Recommendations, ed. Senior Technical Officer’s Group, Wales. Bangor, UK: Nature Conservancy Council, Annex 5, pp. 56-62.
176. USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program (2008). Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, USA. www.ars-grin.gov. Viewed March 2009.
177. USDI, US Geological Survey (2008). Nonindigenous Aquatic Species. http://nas.er.usgs.gov. Viewed March 2009.
178. Valier, K. (1995). The Ferns of Hawaii. Honolulu, HI, USA: University of Hawai‘i Press.
179. Van Oosterhout, E. (2006). Salvinia Control Manual: Management and Control Options for Salvinia molesta in Australia. NSW Department of Primary Industries, Orange, Australia. www.dpi.nsw.gov.au. Viewed March 2009.
180. Veitch, B. (1990). Aspects of aboriginal use and manipulation of bracken fern. In Bracken Biology and Management, ed. J. A. Thomson and R. T. Smith. Sydney, Australia: Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Occasional Publication, 93, pp. 215-26.
181. Villalobos-Salazar, J., Hernández, H., Meneses, A. and Salazar, G. (2000). Factors which may affect ptaquiloside levels in milk: effects of altitude, bracken fern growth stage and milk processing. In Bracken Fern: Toxicity, Biology and Control, ed. J. A. Taylor and R. T. Smith. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 68-74.
182. Volin, J. C., Lott, M. S., Muss, J. D. and Owen, D. (2004). Predicting rapid invasion of the Florida Everglades by Old World Climbing Fern (Lygodium microphyllum). Diversity and Distributions, 10, 439-46.
183. Wagner, W. H., Jr. (1995). Evolution of Hawaiian ferns and fern allies in relation to their conservation status. Pacific Science, 49, 31-41.
184. Walker, L. R. and Boneta, W. (1995). Plant and soil responses to fire on a fern-covered landslide in Puerto Rico. Journal of Tropical Ecology, 11, 473-9.
185. Warren, M. S. (1993). Bracken: hot-spot for invertebrates. Enact, 1, 6.
186. Warren, M. S. and Oates, M. R. (1995). The importance of bracken habitats to fritillary butterflies and their management for conservation. In Bracken: an Environmental Issue, ed. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 178-81.
187. Watt, A. S. (1976). The ecological status of bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 73, 217-39.
188. Wei, D.-S., Kuo, C.-M. and Pan, S.-M. (1997). Studies on the activity of superoxide dismutase in Miscanthus floridulus grown near a copper smelter in Taiwan. Taiwania, 42, 189-200.
189. West, T. M., Lawrie, J. and Cromack, T. (1995). Responses of bracken and its understorey flora to some sulfonylurea herbicides and asulam. BCPC Weeds, 3, 997-1002.
190. Wigglesworth, T., Parsons, M. and Warren, M. S. (2004). Double Line (Mythimna turca) Fact Sheet. Butterfly Conservation, UK. www.butterfly-conservation.org/uploads/ double_line.pdf. Viewed March 2009.
191. Williams, D. R. and Evans, R. A. (1959). Bracken (Pteridium aquilinum): the effect of steaming on the nutritive value of bracken hay. British Journal of Nutrition, 93, 129-36.
192. Wilkins, C. and Salter, L. (2003). Arsenic hyper-accumulation in ferns: a review. Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin of the Royal Society of Chemistry, July, 8-10.
193. Wilson, D., Donaldson, L. J. and Sepai, O. (1998). Should we be frightened of bracken? A review of the evidence. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 52, 812-7.
194. Wilson, K. A. (1996). Alien ferns in Hawaii. Pacific Science, 50, 127-41.
195. Winfield, R. J. (1988). Imazapyr for the control of bracken. Aspects of Applied Biology, 16, 281-8.
196. Wolf, P. G., Haufler, C. H. and Sheffield, E. (1988). Maintenance of genetic variation in the clonal weed Pteridium aquilinum (bracken). SAAS Bulletin of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 1, 46-50.
197. Womack, J. G., Eccleston, G. M. and Burge, M. N. (1995). Progress in the development of a mycoherbicidal formulation for bracken control. In Bracken: an Environmental Issue, eds. R. T. Smith and J. A. Taylor. Aberystwyth, UK: International Bracken Group, Special Publication, 93, pp. 137-40.
198. Wynn, J. M., Small, J. L., Pakeman, R. J. and Sheffield, E. (2000). An assessment of genetic and environmental effects on sporangial development in bracken using a novel quantitative method. Annals of Botany, 85, 113-5.
199. Xu, L. R. (1992). Bracken poisoning and enzootic haematuria in cattle in China. Research in Veterinary Science, 53, 116-21.
200. Young, S. (1990). The horsetail’s tale: a relic from the Paleozoic era. New Scientist, 1698, 67.
201. Zakaria, Z. A., Abdul Ghani, Z. D. F., Raden Mohd Nor R. N. S., et al. (2006). Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities of Dicranopteris linearis leaves: chloroform extract in experimental animals. Yakugaku Zasshi, 126, 1197-203.