Motor symptoms of schizophrenia: Is tardive dyskinesia a symptom or side effect? A modern treatment

Current Psychiatry Reports

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 295-304

  Lerner, Vladimir ^a   Miodownik, Chanoch ^a  

^a BEN GURION UNIVERSITY OF THE NEGEV   (Israel)

Author keywords

Antioxidants; Antipsychotics; First generation antipsychotics; Motor symptom; Psychotropic agents; Schizoaffective disorders; Schizophrenia; Second generation antipsychotics; Side effect; Symptoms; Tardive dyskinesia; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ETIRACETAM; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; MELATONIN; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PIRACETAM; PLACEBO; PYRIDOXINE;

AKATHISIA; ARTICLE; BLEPHAROSPASM; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG SAFETY; DYSTONIA; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; GAIT DISORDER; GILLES DE LA TOURETTE SYNDROME; HUMAN; MYOCLONUS; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; TREMOR;

AKATHISIA, DRUG-INDUCED; ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; GINKGO BILOBA; HUMANS; MELATONIN; MOVEMENT DISORDERS; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; PHYTOTHERAPY; PIRACETAM; SCHIZOPHRENIA; VITAMIN B 6; VITAMIN E;

EID: 80051668748     PISSN: 15233812     EISSN: 15351645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11920-011-0202-6     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. V Khot RJ Wyatt 1991 Not all that moves is tardive dyskinesia Am J Psychiatry 148 661 666 1673323 1:STN:280:DyaK3M3gs1Kiuw%3D%3D
2. Owens DGC. A guide to the extrapyramidal side-effects of antipsychotic drugs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1999.
3. WS Fenton 2000 Prevalence of spontaneous dyskinesia in schizophrenia J Clin Psychiatry 61 Suppl 4 10 14 10739325 (Pubitemid 30158597)
4. Waddington JL, Crow TJ. Abnormal involuntary movements and psychosis in the preneuroleptic era and in medicated patients: implications for the concept of tardive dyskinesia. In: Wolf ME, Mosnaim AD, editors. Tardive dyslinesia: biological mechanisms and clinical aspects. Washington: American Psychiatric Press; 1988. p. 51-66.
5. TJ Crow AJ Cross EC Johnstone, et al. 1982 Abnormal involuntary movements in schizophrenia: are they related to the disease process or its treatment? Are they associated with changes in dopamine receptors? J Clin Psychopharmacol 2 336 340 7130435 10.1097/00004714-198210000-00010 1:STN:280: DyaL3s%2FjtFemsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 13198873)
6. Kraepelin E. Dementia praecox and paraphrenia. Barclay, M. (trans). Huntington: Krieger, 1971.
7. F Fish 1958 Leonhard's classification of schizophrenia J Ment Sci 104 943 971 13621143 1:STN:280:DyaG1M%2FltVKrsA%3D%3D
8. M Schonecker 1957 Paroxysmal dyskinesia as the effect of megaphen Nervenarzt 28 550 553 13517450 1:STN:280:DyaG1c%2FmtVejug%3D%3D
9. J Sigwald D Bouttier C Raymondeaud C Piot 1959 4 cases of facio-bucco-linguo-masticatory dyskinesis of prolonged development following treatment with neuroleptics Rev Neurol (Paris) 100 751 755 1:STN:280: DyaF3c7pvFektQ%3D%3D
10. A Faurbye PJ Rasch PB Petersen, et al. 1964 Neurological symptoms in pharmacotherapy of psychoses Acta Psychiatr Scand 40 10 27 14217630 10.1111/j.1600-0447.1964.tb05731.x 1:CAS:528:DyaF2MXjt1Gisg%3D%3D
11. MB Detweiler N Kalafat KY Kim 2007 Drug-induced movement disorders in older adults: an overview for clinical practitioners Consult Pharm 22 149 165 17367248 10.4140/TCP.n.2007.149 (Pubitemid 46941021)
12. PS Sachdev 2005 Neuroleptic-induced movement disorders: an overview Psychiatr Clin North Am 28 255 274 15733622 10.1016/j.psc.2004.10.004 x (Pubitemid 40279035)
13. Brion S, Plas J, Chevalier JF, Dussaux P. Senile dyskinesias and tardive dyskinesias. Encephale 1988;14 Spec No:215-219
14. EC Lauterbach WG Carter KM Rathke, et al. 2001 Tardive dyskinesia-diagnostic issues, subsyndromes, and concurrent movement disorders: a study of state hospital inpatients referred to a movement disorder consultation service Schizophr Bull 27 601 613 11824487 1:STN:280:DC%2BD38%2FpsFCnsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 34093247)
15. Skidmore F, Weiner WJ, Burke R. Neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia variants. In: Factor SA, Lang AE, Weiner WJ, editors. Drug induced movement disorders. 2nd ed. Malden: Blackwell; 2005. p. 257-84.
16. DeLeon ML, Jankovic J. Clinical features and management of tardive dyskinesias, tardive myoclonus, tardive tremor, and tardive tourettism. In: Sethi K, editor. Drug induced movement disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 2004. p. 77-109.
17. V Lerner I Libov A Kaptsan, et al. 2007 The prevalence of neuroleptic drug-induced tardive movement subsyndromes among schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients residing in the southern region of Israel Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 44 20 28 17665807
18. F Skidmore SG Reich 2005 Tardive dystonia Curr Treat Options Neurol 7 231 236 15814076 10.1007/s11940-005-0016-0 (Pubitemid 40894935)
19. Miodownik C, Lerner V, Witztum E. Pisa syndrome and laryngeal dystonia induced by novel antipsychotics. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 2011 (in press).
20. • Brasic JR, Bronson B. Tardive dyskinesia. Access: 2010, http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1151826-overview. This is an updated review regarding TD.
21. • Factor SA, Leffler JB, Murray CF. Drug-induced movement disorders: a clinical review. Access: 2009, http://cme.medscape.com/viewarticle/586881. This is also an updated review regarding TD.
22. Fahn S, Jankovic J. Principles and practice of movement disorders. Philadelphia: Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2007.
23. PN van Harten GE Matroos J Van Os 2008 The course of tardive dystonia in Afro Caribbean patients, a population-based study: the Curacao extrapyramidal syndromes study: VII Schizophr Res 98 79 83 17936588 10.1016/j.schres.2007.09. 010 (Pubitemid 350245590)
24. Y Lee WC Yeh MY Chong, et al. 2007 Venlafaxine and tardive blepharospasm: a case report Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31 1139 1140 17478026 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.03.015 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXmtVKjtro%3D (Pubitemid 46810103)
25. HS Duggal DN Mendhekar 2007 Clozapine-induced tardive dystonia (blepharospasm) J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 19 86 87 17308236 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.19.1.86 (Pubitemid 46294454)
26. P Sachdev 1998 Tardive blepharospasm Mov Disord 13 947 951 9827620 10.1002/mds.870130614 1:STN:280:DyaK1M%2FktlehsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 28517673)
27. Burke RE. Neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia variants. In: Lang AE, Weiner WJ, editors. Drug-induced movement disorders. New York: Futura; 1992. p. 167-98.
28. DF Wong JR Brasic HS Singer, et al. 2008 Mechanisms of dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotransmission in Tourette syndrome: clues from an in vivo neurochemistry study with PET Neuropsychopharmacology 33 1239 1251 17987065 10.1038/sj.npp.1301528 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXksFyntb4%3D (Pubitemid 351521728)
29. M Stacy J Jankovic 1992 Tardive tremor Mov Disord 7 53 57 1348352 10.1002/mds.870070110 1:STN:280:DyaK383ht1egug%3D%3D
30. D Tarsy G Indorf 2002 Tardive tremor due to metoclopramide Mov Disord 17 620 621 12112224 10.1002/mds.10227 (Pubitemid 36040987)
31. SH Kuo J Jankovic 2008 Tardive gait Clin Neurol Neurosurg 110 198 201 17997030 10.1016/j.clineuro.2007.09.013
32. DE Casey 2000 Tardive dyskinesia: pathophysiology and animal models J Clin Psychiatry 61 Suppl 4 5 9 10739324 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXisFSktrY%3D (Pubitemid 30158596)
33. YJ Liou YC Wang JY Chen, et al. 2007 Association analysis of polymorphisms in the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit 2B (GRIN2B) gene and tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenia Psychiatry Res 153 271 275 17669510 10.1016/j.psychres.2006.08.007 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXht1amsrzF (Pubitemid 47632798)
34. EN Rizos N Siafakas E Katsantoni, et al. 2009 Association of the dopamine D3 receptor Ser9Gly and of the serotonin 2C receptor gene polymorphisms with tardive dyskinesia in Greeks with chronic schizophrenic disorder Psychiatr Genet 19 106 107 19106782 10.1097/YPG.0b013e32832080ad
35. T Lencz AK Malhotra 2009 Pharmacogenetics of antipsychotic-induced side effects Dialogues Clin Neurosci 11 405 415 20135898 This is a review regarding the effect of dopamine D2- and D3-receptor genes (DRD2, DRD3, and HTR2C) on the risk of TD.
36. RP Souza G Remington NI Chowdhury, et al. 2010 Association study of the GSK-3B gene with tardive dyskinesia in European Caucasians Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 20 688 694 20605420 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2010.05.002 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtV2iurbO
37. SK Kulkarni PS Naidu 2003 Pathophysiology and drug therapy of tardive dyskinesia: current concepts and future perspectives Drugs Today (Barc) 39 19 49 10.1358/dot.2003.39.1.799430 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXjt1ajs78%3D (Pubitemid 36378460)
38. K Vaddadi K Hakansson J Clifford J Waddington 2006 Tardive dyskinesia and essential fatty acids Int Rev Psychiatry 18 133 143 16777667 10.1080/09540260600583114 (Pubitemid 43791676)
39. M Bishnoi K Chopra SK Kulkarni 2007 Possible anti-oxidant and neuroprotective mechanisms of zolpidem in attenuating typical anti-psychotic-induced orofacial dyskinesia: a biochemical and neurochemical study Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 31 1130 1138 17513028 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2007.04.007 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXmtVKjtr0%3D (Pubitemid 46810111)
40. V Lerner C Miodownik A Kaptsan, et al. 2007 Vitamin B6 treatment for tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study J Clin Psychiatry 68 1648 1654 18052557 10.4088/JCP.v68n1103 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhsVyjsbrL (Pubitemid 350247493)
41. I Libov C Miodownik Y Bersudsky, et al. 2007 Efficacy of piracetam in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study J Clin Psychiatry 68 1031 1037 17685739 10.4088/JCP.v68n0709 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXps1Gntb0%3D (Pubitemid 47340323)
42. YL Tan DF Zhou XY Zhang 2005 Decreased plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in schizophrenic patients with tardive dyskinesia: association with dyskinetic movements Schizophr Res 74 263 270 15722005 10.1016/j.schres. 2004.08.004 (Pubitemid 40255082)
43. P Dalgalarrondo WF Gattaz 1994 Basal ganglia abnormalities in tardive dyskinesia. Possible relationship with duration of neuroleptic treatment Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 244 272 277 7893773 10.1007/BF02190380 1:STN:280:DyaK2M3gtV2rtw%3D%3D
44. YM Bai KH Chou CP Lin, et al. 2009 White matter abnormalities in schizophrenia patients with tardive dyskinesia: a diffusion tensor image study Schizophr Res 109 167 181 19261444 10.1016/j.schres.2009.02.003
45. RG McCreadie R Thara R Padmavati, et al. 2002 Structural brain differences between never-treated patients with schizophrenia, with and without dyskinesia, and normal control subjects: a magnetic resonance imaging study Arch Gen Psychiatry 59 332 336 11926933 10.1001/archpsyc.59.4.332 (Pubitemid 34275251)
46. MA Niznikiewicz M Kubicki ME Shenton 2003 Recent structural and functional imaging findings in schizophrenia Curr Opin Psychiatry 16 123 147 10.1097/00001504-200303000-00002 (Pubitemid 36288324)
47. S Szymanski RC Gur F Gallacher, et al. 1996 Vulnerability to tardive dyskinesia development in schizophrenia: an FDG-PET study of cerebral metabolism Neuropsychopharmacology 15 567 575 8946431 10.1016/S0893-133X(96)00101-7 1:STN:280:DyaK2s7gtF2isQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 26400761)
48. G Bartzokis HJ Garber SR Marder WH Olendorf 1990 MRI in tardive dyskinesia: shortened left caudate T2 Biol Psychiatry 28 1027 1036 1981152 10.1016/0006-3223(90)90603-Y 1:STN:280:DyaK3M7ksFGjtA%3D%3D
49. CU Correll EM Schenk 2008 Tardive dyskinesia and new antipsychotics Curr Opin Psychiatry 21 151 156 18332662 10.1097/YCO.0b013e3282f53132 (Pubitemid 351339869)
50. DE Tenback PN van Harten CJ Slooff J van Os 2010 Incidence and persistence of tardive dyskinesia and extrapyramidal symptoms in schizophrenia J Psychopharmacol 24 1031 1035 19487321 10.1177/0269881109106306 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3crhtFGmtA%3D%3D
51. J DeLeon 2007 The effect of atypical versus typical antipsychotics on tardive dyskinesia. A naturalistic study Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 257 169 172 10.1007/s00406-006-0705-z (Pubitemid 46599131)
52. SW Woods H Morgenstern JR Saksa, et al. 2010 Incidence of tardive dyskinesia with atypical versus conventional antipsychotic medications: a prospective cohort study J Clin Psychiatry 71 463 474 20156410 10.4088/JCP.07m03890yel 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXmsFWnsLo%3D This prospective cohort study found that current users of typical and atypical antipsychotics had similar incidences of TD
53. D Tarsy RJ Baldessarini 2006 Epidemiology of tardive dyskinesia: is risk declining with modern antipsychotics? Mov Disord 21 589 598 16532448 10.1002/mds.20823 (Pubitemid 43792739)
54. AG Malykh MR Sadaie 2010 Piracetam and piracetam-like drugs: from basic science to novel clinical applications to CNS disorders Drugs 70 287 312 20166767 10.2165/11319230-000000000-00000 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXkvFOnu7g%3D
55. B Winblad 2005 Piracetam: a review of pharmacological properties and clinical uses CNS Drug Rev 11 169 182 16007238 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2005.tb00268. x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVOlsbbL (Pubitemid 41278980)
56. C Fehr N Dahmen C Klawe, et al. 2001 Piracetam in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia and akathisia: a case report J Clin Psychopharmacol 21 248 249 11270931 10.1097/00004714-200104000-00026 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M7nsFeltA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 32221072)
57. J Kabes J Sikora O Stary, et al. 1983 Effectiveness of piracetam in tardive dyskinesia-double-blind cross-over controlled trial with a placebo Cesk Psychiatr 79 339 345 6357509 1:STN:280:DyaL2c%2FlsFGrsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 14200768)
58. D Sirsi JE Safdieh 2007 The safety of levetiracetam Expert Opin Drug Saf 6 241 250 17480174 10.1517/14740338.6.3.241 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXkvV2rt7k%3D (Pubitemid 46767632)
59. JR Bona 2006 Treatment of neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia with levetiracetam: a case series J Clin Psychopharmacol 26 215 216 16633158 10.1097/01.jcp.0000203823.60603.80 (Pubitemid 43740353)
60. S Konitsiotis S Pappa C Mantas V Mavreas 2006 Levetiracetam in tardive dyskinesia: an open label study Mov Disord 21 1219 1221 16637037 10.1002/mds.20835 (Pubitemid 44336612)
61. SW Woods JR Saksa CB Baker, et al. 2008 Effects of levetiracetam on tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study J Clin Psychiatry 69 546 554 18312060 10.4088/JCP.v69n0405 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD1cXmtFShsbg%3D (Pubitemid 351792328)
62. DE Casey 2004 Pathophysiology of antipsychotic drug-induced movement disorders J Clin Psychiatry 65 Suppl 9 25 28 15189109 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD2cXls1Gmurs%3D
63. DG Margineanu H Klitgaard 2000 Inhibition of neuronal hypersynchrony in vitro differentiates levetiracetam from classical antiepileptic drugs Pharmacol Res 42 281 285 10987984 10.1006/phrs.2000.0689 1:STN:280: DC%2BD3M%2FovF2rsg%3D%3D
64. V Belcastro L Pierguidi N Tambasco 2011 Levetiracetam in brain ischemia: clinical implications in neuroprotection and prevention of post-stroke epilepsy Brain Dev 33 289 293 20630672 10.1016/j.braindev.2010.06.008
65. MC Schaeffer EF Cochary JA Sadowski 1990 Subtle abnormalities of gait detected early in vitamin B6 deficiency in aged and weanling rats with hind leg gait analysis J Am Coll Nutr 9 120 127 2338461 1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXlslSrs7g%3D
66. K Dakshinamurti CS Paulose M Viswanathan, et al. 1990 Neurobiology of pyridoxine Ann NY Acad Sci 585 128 144 2192608 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb28049. x 1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXlvFSisLk%3D (Pubitemid 20175893)
67. Goodman LS, Gilman A. The pharmacologic basis of therapeutics, vol. II. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1992.
68. Dreyfus PM, Geel SE. Vitamins and nutritional deficiencies. In: Siegel GJ, Alberts RW, Agranoff BW, Katzman R, editors. Basic neurochemistry. Boston: Little Brown; 1981. p. 661-79.
69. M Viswanathan YL Siow CS Paulose K Dakshinamurti 1988 Pineal indoleamine metabolism in pyridoxine-deficient rats Brain Res 473 37 42 2463057 10.1016/0006-8993(88)90312-5 1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXnsVWltw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 19008208)
70. L Cabrini R Bergami D Fiorentini, et al. 1998 Vitamin B6 deficiency affects antioxidant defences in rat liver and heart Biochem Mol Biol Int 46 689 697 9844729 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXnvVGqsrY%3D (Pubitemid 28537686)
71. V Lerner C Miodownik A Kaptsan, et al. 2001 Vitamin B(6) in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study Am J Psychiatry 158 1511 1514 11532741 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.9.1511 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3MvovFKqug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 32847255)
72. JB Lohr R Kuczenski AB Niculescu 2003 Oxidative mechanisms and tardive dyskinesia CNS Drugs 17 47 62 12467492 10.2165/00023210-200317010-00004 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXms1SjtA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 36044348)
73. D Tarsy 2000 Tardive dyskinesia Curr Treat Options Neurol 2 205 214 11096748 10.1007/s11940-000-0003-4
74. LA Adler R Edson P Lavori, et al. 1998 Long-term treatment effects of vitamin E for tardive dyskinesia Biol Psychiatry 43 868 872 9627740 10.1016/S0006-3223(97)00027-9 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXktVCms7s%3D (Pubitemid 28288364)
75. JB Lohr MP Caligiuri 1996 A double-blind placebo-controlled study of vitamin E treatment of tardive dyskinesia J Clin Psychiatry 57 167 173 8601552 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XmslOitr8%3D (Pubitemid 26123363)
76. LA Adler J Rotrosen R Edson, et al. 1999 Vitamin E treatment for tardive dyskinesia. Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study #394 Study Group Arch Gen Psychiatry 56 836 841 12892048 10.1001/archpsyc.56.9.836 1:CAS:528: DyaK1MXmt1WlsLY%3D (Pubitemid 29420705)
77. CL Shriqui J Bradwejn L Annable BD Jones 1992 Vitamin E in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a double-blind placebo-controlled study Am J Psychiatry 149 391 393 1346951 1:STN:280:DyaK387mtV2kuw%3D%3D
78. A Dorevitch M Kalian M Shlafman V Lerner 1997 Treatment of long-term tardive dyskinesia with vitamin E Biol Psychiatry 41 114 116 8988802 10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00367-8 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXhsVOiurg%3D (Pubitemid 27050652)
79. KH Boomershine PS Shelton JE Boomershine 1999 Vitamin E in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia Ann Pharmacother 33 1195 1202 10573320 10.1345/aph.17025 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXnvFamsLw%3D
80. Y Barak M Swartz E Shamir, et al. 1998 Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a statistical meta-analysis Ann Clin Psychiatry 10 101 105 9781472 1:STN:280:DyaK1cvlt1OgsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 28495143)
81. Soares KV, McGrath JJ. Vitamin E for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001:CD000209.
82. A Altun B Ugur-Altun 2007 Melatonin: therapeutic and clinical utilization Int J Clin Pract 61 835 845 17298593 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2006.01191.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXmvVWgtL0%3D (Pubitemid 46587862)
83. RJ Reiter GJ Maestroni 1999 Melatonin in relation to the antioxidative defense and immune systems: possible implications for cell and organ transplantation J Mol Med 77 36 39 9930924 10.1007/s001090050297 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXjtVKrsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 29146179)
84. E Shamir Y Barak I Plopsky, et al. 2000 Is melatonin treatment effective for tardive dyskinesia? J Clin Psychiatry 61 556 558 10982197 10.4088/JCP.v61n0803 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXmvVemtr4%3D
85. E Shamir Y Barak I Shalman, et al. 2001 Melatonin treatment for tardive dyskinesia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study Arch Gen Psychiatry 58 1049 1052 11695951 10.1001/archpsyc.58.11.1049 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXptVemsrs%3D (Pubitemid 33051830)
86. Melatonin Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2010; www.naturaldatabase.com
87. LA Nelson JM McGuire SN Hausafus 2003 Melatonin for the treatment of tardive dyskinesia Ann Pharmacother 37 1128 1131 12841828 10.1345/aph.1C460 (Pubitemid 36875249)
88. S Bastianetto WH Zheng R Quirion 2000 The Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) protects and rescues hippocampal cells against nitric oxide-induced toxicity: involvement of its flavonoid constituents and protein kinase C J Neurochem 74 2268 2277 10820186 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2000.0742268.x 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD3cXjsVKku7o%3D (Pubitemid 30314201)
89. FV DeFeudis K Drieu 2000 Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) and CNS functions: basic studies and clinical applications Curr Drug Targets 1 25 58 11475535 10.2174/1389450003349380 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXlt1WhtL4%3D
90. XY Zhang DF Zhou PY Zhang, et al. 2001 A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of extract of Ginkgo biloba added to haloperidol in treatment-resistant patients with schizophrenia J Clin Psychiatry 62 878 883 11775047 10.4088/JCP.v62n1107 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xkt1Wjsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 33131174)
91. B Mirnikjoo SE Brown HF Kim, et al. 2001 Protein kinase inhibition by omega-3 fatty acids J Biol Chem 276 10888 10896 11152679 10.1074/jbc.M008150200 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXjvFCqurs%3D (Pubitemid 38089266)
92. A Ikemoto A Nitta S Furukawa, et al. 2000 Dietary n-3 fatty acid deficiency decreases nerve growth factor content in rat hippocampus Neurosci Lett 285 99 102 10793236 10.1016/S0304-3940(00)01035-1 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD3cXivVGgurs%3D (Pubitemid 30227629)
93. M Sarsilmaz A Songur H Ozyurt, et al. 2003 Potential role of dietary omega-3 essential fatty acids on some oxidant/antioxidant parameters in rats' corpus striatum Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 69 253 259 12907135 10.1016/S0952-3278(03)00107-8 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXlvFOku7s%3D (Pubitemid 37463806)
94. R Emsley DJ Niehaus L Koen, et al. 2006 The effects of eicosapentaenoic acid in tardive dyskinesia: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial Schizophr Res 84 112 120 16632329 10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.023 (Pubitemid 44255716)
95. BK Puri 2006 High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging sinc-interpolation-based subvoxel registration and semi-automated quantitative lateral ventricular morphology employing threshold computation and binary image creation in the study of fatty acid interventions in schizophrenia, depression, chronic fatigue syndrome and Huntington's disease Int Rev Psychiatry 18 149 154 16777669 10.1080/09540260600583015 (Pubitemid 43791679)