Genetic essentialism: On the deceptive determinism of DNA

Psychological Bulletin

Volumn 137, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 800-818

  Dar Nimrod, Ilan ^a   Heine, Steven J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Genetic attributions; Naturalistic fallacy; Psychological essentialism; Scientific communication; Stereotypes

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; COGNITION; ETHNIC GROUP; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; GENETICS; HEREDITY; HUMAN; MALE; MEDICAL GENETICS; MENTAL DISEASE; OBESITY; OFFENDER; PHENOTYPE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RACE; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CLASS; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY;

ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; COGNITION; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; CRIMINALS; ETHNIC GROUPS; EUGENICS; FEMALE; GENDER IDENTITY; GENETIC DETERMINISM; GENETICS; HEALTH KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES, PRACTICE; HUMANS; MALE; MENTAL DISORDERS; OBESITY; PHENOTYPE; PREJUDICE; SEXUAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL CLASS; STEREOTYPING;

EID: 79960554412     PISSN: 00332909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0021860     Document Type: Article

References (178)

1. Allport G. The nature of prejudice 1954, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
2. Alper J.S. Biological influences on criminal behaviour: How good is the evidence?. British Medical Journal 1995, 310:272-273. PMid:7532503.
3. Alper J.S., Beckwith J. Genetic fatalism and social policy: The implications of behavior genetics research. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 1993, 66:511-524. PMid:7716971.
4. Alper J.S., Beckwith J. Racism: A central problem for the Human Genome Diversity Project. Politics and Life Sciences 1999, 18:285-288. PMid:12542056.
5. Alper J.S., Beckwith J. Genetics, race, and ethnicity: Searching for differences. The double-edged helix: Social implications of genetics in a diverse society 2002, 175-196. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. J.S. Alper, C. Ard, A. Asch, J. Beckwith, P. Conrad, L.N. Geller (Eds.).
6. Altemeyer B. Enemies of freedom 1988, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
7. Anderson G.S. Biological influences on criminal behavior 2006, Simon Fraser University Press/CRC Press, Vancouver, Canada. 10.1201/9781420043327.
8. Anderson N.B., Nickerson K.J. Genes, race, and psychology in the genome era: An introduction. American Psychologist 2005, 60:5-8. 10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.5.
9. Angermeyer M., Matschinger H. The stereotype of schizophrenia and its impact on discrimination against people with schizophrenia: Results from a representative survey in Germany. Schizophrenia Bulletin 2004, 30:1049-1061. PMid:15954207.
10. Astuti R., Solomon G.E.A., Carey S. Constraints on conceptual development: A case study of the acquisition of folkbiological and folksociological knowledge in Madagascar. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 2004, 69. (Serial No. 277). http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0037-976x.
11. Atran S. Ordinary constraints on the semantics of living kinds: A commonsense alternative to recent treatments of natural-object terms. Mind and Language 1987, 2:27-63. 10.1111/j.1468-0017.1987.tb00107.x.
12. Bailey J.M., Pillard R.A. Are some people born gay?. The New York Times 1991, December 17, A21.
13. Baker M.G., Menken M. Time to abandon the term " mental illness" British Medical Journal 2001, 322:937. 10.1136/bmj.322.7291.937.
14. Bastian B., Haslam N. Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 2006, 42:228-235. 10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.003.
15. Benbow C.P., Stanley J.C. Sex differences in mathematical ability: Fact or artifact?. Science 1980, December 12, 210:1262-1264. 10.1126/science.7434028.
16. Bernet W., Vnencak-Jones C.L., Farahany N., Montgomery S.A. Bad nature, bad nurture, and testimony regarding MAOA and SLC6A4 genotyping at murder trials. Journal of Forensic Science 2007, 52:1362-1371. PMid:17944904.
17. Black E. War against the weak: Eugenics and American's campaign to create a master race 2003, Four Walls Eight Windows, New York.
18. Bouchard T.J. Genetic influence on human psychological traits: A survey. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2004, 13:148-151. 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00295.x.
19. Boysen G., Vogel D. Biased assimilation and attitude polarization in response to learning about biological explanations of homosexuality. Sex Roles 2007, 57:755-762. 10.1007/s11199-007-9256-7.
20. Brescoll V., LaFrance M. The correlates and consequences of newspaper reports of research on sex differences. Psychological Science 2004, 15:515-520. 10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00712.x.
21. Brookey R.A. Reinventing the male homosexual 2002, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
22. Brown P., Levinson S.C. Linguistic and nonlinguistic coding of spatial arrays: Exploration in Mayan cognition 1993, Cognitive Anthropology Research Group, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, Working Paper No. 24.
23. Bubela T.M., Caulfield T.A. Do the print media " hype" genetic research? A comparison of newspaper stories and peer-reviewed research papers. Canadian Medical Association Journal 2004, 170:1399-1407. PMid:15111473.
24. Bullough V.L. Sexual variance in society and history 1976, Wiley, New York, NY.
25. Burt A., Trivers R. Genes in conflict: The biology of selfish genetic elements 2006, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
26. Burt C.L. Studying the minds of others. How the mind works 1934, Unwin Brothers, London, England. C.L. Burt (Ed.).
27. Campbell D.T. Common fate, similarity, and other indices of the status of aggregates of persons as social entities. Behavioral Science 1958, 3:14-25. 10.1002/bs.3830030103.
28. Carden M.L. Oneida: Utopian community to modern corporation 1969, Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, MD.
29. Caspi A., McClay J., Moffitt T.E., Mill J., Martin J., Craig I.W., Poulton R. Role of genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 2002, August 2, 297:851-854. 10.1126/science.1072290.
30. Caspi A., Sugden K., Moffitt T.E., Taylor A., Craig I.W., Harrington H., Poulton R. Influence of life stress on depression: Moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 2003, July 18, 301:386-389. 10.1126/science.1083968.
31. Cavalli-Sforza L.L., Menozzi P., Piazza A. The history and geography of human genes 1994, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
32. Chao M.M., Chen J., Roisman G., Hong Y. Essentializing race: Implications for bicultural individuals' cognition and physiological reactivity. Psychological Science 2007, 18:341-348. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01901.x.
33. Choi I., Nisbett R., Norenzayan A. Causal attribution across cultures: Variation and universality. Psychological Bulletin 1999, 125:47-63. 10.1037/0033-2909.125.1.47.
34. CIBA Foundation Symposium Genetics of criminal and antisocial behaviour: Symposium No. 194 1996, Wiley, Chichester, England.
35. Claassen L., Henneman L., De Vet R., Knol D., Marteau T., Timmermans D. Fatalistic responses to different types of genetic risk information: Exploring the role of self-malleability. Psychology and Health 2010, 25:183-196. 10.1080/08870440802460434.
36. Coleman J., Hong Y. Beyond nature and nurture: The influence of lay gender theories on self-stereotyping. Self & Identity 2008, 7:34-53. 10.1080/15298860600980185.
37. Condit C.M., Ofulue N., Sheedy K.M. Determinism and mass-media portrayals of genetics. American Journal of Human Genetics 1998, 62:979-984. 10.1086/301784.
38. Condit C.M., Parrott R.L., Bates B.R., Bevan J.L., Achter P.J. Exploration of the impact of messages about genes and race on lay attitudes. Clinical Genetics 2004, 66:402-408. 10.1111/j.1399-0004.2004.00327.x.
39. Conrad P. Public eyes and private genes: Historical frames, news constructions, and social problems. Social Problems 1997, 44:139-154. 10.1525/sp.1997.44.2.03x0219k.
40. Conrad P. A mirage of genes. Sociology of Health and Illness 1999, 21:228-241. 10.1111/1467-9566.00151.
41. Conrad P. Genetics and behavior in the news: Dilemmas of a rising paradigm. The double-edged helix: Social implications of genetics in a diverse society 2002, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. J.S. Alper, C. Ard, A. Asch, J. Beckwith, P. Conrad, L.N. Geller (Eds.).
42. Conrad P., Markens S. Constructing the " gay gene" in the news: Optimism and skepticism in the U.S. and British press. Health: An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health, Illness and Medicine 2001, 5:373-400. PMid:8014833.
43. Cooper Dreyfuss R., Nelkin D. The genetics of jurisprudence. Vanderbilt Law Review 1992, 45:313-348. http://www.vanderbiltlawreview.org/.
44. Coyne R. Designing information technology in the postmodern age 1995, MIT Press, Boston, MA.
45. Crandall C.S. Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994, 66:882-894. 10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.882.
46. Dar-Nimrod I., Heine S.J. Exposure to scientific theories affects women's math performance. Science 2006, October 20, 314:435. 10.1126/science.1131100.
47. Dar-Nimrod, I., Heine, S. J., Cheung, B. Y., & Schaller, M. (2010). Do scientific theories affect punishment for sex crimes? Unpublished manuscript, University of British Columbia.
48. Dar-Nimrod I., Ruby M., Heine S.J. The unexpected consequences of learning about " fat genes." Working paper 2010, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
49. Darwin C. The origin of species by the mean of natural selection or the preservation of favored races in the struggle for life 1859, Murray, London, England.
50. Dawkins R. The selfish gene 1976, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
51. de Melo-Martin I. Firing up the nature/nurture controversy: Bioethics and genetic determinism. Journal of Medical Ethics 2005, 31:526-530. 10.1136/jme.2004.008417.
52. Dienstbier R.A. A modified belief theory of prejudice emphasizing the mutual causality of racial prejudice and anticipated belief differences. Psychological Review 1972, 79:146-160. 10.1037/h0032310.
53. Dougherty M.J. Closing the gap: Inverting the genetics curriculum to ensure an informed public. American Journal of Human Genetics 2009, 85:6-12. 10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.010.
54. Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., Esses, V. (Eds). (in press). Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
55. Dowbiggin I.R. Keeping America sane: Psychiatry and eugenics in the United States and Canada 2003, 1880-1940. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY.
56. Dweck C.S., Leggett E.L. A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review 1988, 95:256-273. 10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256.
57. Eccles J.S., Jacobs J.E. Social forces shape math attitudes and performance. Signs 1986, 11:367-380. 10.1086/494229.
58. Ellis L., Walsh A. Criminology: A global perspective 2000, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA.
59. Farrer L.A., Cupples L.A., Haines J.L., Hyman B., Kukall W.A., Mayeux R., Van Dujin C.M. Effects of age, sex, and ethnicity on the association between apolipoprotein E genotype and Alzheimer disease: A meta-analysis. APOE and Alzheimer Disease Meta-Analysis Consortium. Journal of the American Medical Association 1997, 278:1349-1356. PMid:9343467.
60. Flynn J. What is intelligence? Beyond the Flynn effect 2007, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
61. Fowler J.H., Baker L.A., Dawes C.T. Genetic variation in political participation. American Political Science Review 2008, 102:233-248. 10.1017/S0003055408080209.
62. Frankena W.K. The naturalistic fallacy. Mind 1939, 48:464-477. http://mind.oxfordjournals.org/, 10.1093/mind/XLVIII.192.464.
63. Friedrich J. Naturalistic fallacy errors in lay interpretations of psychological science: Data and reflections on the Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman (1998). controversy. Basic and Applied Social Psychology 2005, 27:59-70. 10.1207/s15324834basp2701_6.
64. Galton F. Hereditary genius 1869, Macmillan, London.
65. Galton F. Inquiries into human faculty and its development 1883, Macmillan, London, England.
66. Gelman S.A. The essential child: Origins of essentialism in everyday thought 2003, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
67. Gelman S.A. Learning from others: Children's construction of concepts. Annual Review of Psychology 2009, 60:115-140. 10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093659.
68. Gelman S.A., Collman P., Maccoby E.E. Inferring properties from categories versus inferring categories from properties: The case of gender. Child Development 1986, 57:396-404. 10.2307/1130595.
69. Gelman S.A., Taylor M.G. Gender essentialism in cognitive development. Toward a feminist developmental psychology 2000, 169-190. Taylor & Frances/Routledge, Florence, KY. P.H. Miller, S.E. Kofsky (Eds.).
70. Gelman S.A., Welman H. Insides and essences. Cognition 1991, 38:213-244. 10.1016/0010-0277(91)90007-Q.
71. Gil-White F. Are ethnic groups biological " species" to the human brain? Essentialism in human cognition of some social groups. Current Anthropology 2001, 42:515-554. 10.1086/321802.
72. Gilbert D.T., Malone P.S. The correspondence bias. Psychological Bulletin 1995, 117:21-38. 10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.21.
73. Goddard H.H. The Kallikak family: A study in the heredity of feeblemindedness 1913, Macmillan, New York.
74. Götz M., Johnstone E., Ratcliffe S. Criminality and antisocial behaviour in unselected men with sex chromosomes abnormalities. Psychological Medicine 1999, 29:953-962. 10.1017/S0033291799008594.
75. Gould S.J. The mismeasure of man 1996, Norton, New York, NY. 2nd ed.
76. Guo G., Tong Y., Cai T. Gene by social context interactions for number of sexual partners among white male youths: Genetics-informed sociology. American Journal of Sociology 2008, 114(Suppl. 1):S36-S66. 10.1086/592207.
77. Hamer D.H., Hu S., Magnuson V.L., Hu N., Pattatucci A.M.L. A linkage between DNA markers on the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science 1993, July 16, 261:321-327. 10.1126/science.8332896.
78. Haslam N., Bastian B., Bain P., Kashima Y. Psychological essentialism, implicit theories, and intergroup relations. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 2006, 9:63-76. 10.1177/1368430206059861.
79. Haslam N., Levy S.R. Essentialist beliefs about homosexuality: Structure and implications for prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2006, 32:471-485. 10.1177/0146167205276516.
80. Haslam N., Rothschild L., Ernst D. Essentialist beliefs about social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology 2000, 39:113-127. 10.1348/014466600164363.
81. Haslam N., Rothschild L., Ernst D. Essentialism and entitativity: Structure of beliefs about the ontology of social categories. The psychology of group perception 2004, 61-78. Psychology Press, New York, NY. V. Yzerbyt, C.M. Judd, O. Corneille (Eds.).
82. Hegarty P. " It's not a choice, it's the way we're built": Symbolic beliefs about sexual orientation in the US and Britain. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 2002, 12:153-166. 10.1002/casp.669.
83. Heine S.J., Kitayama S., Lehman D.R., Takata T., Ide E., Leung C., Matsumoto H. Divergent consequences of success and failure in Japan and North America: An investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2001, 81:599-615. 10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.599.
84. Henrich J., Heine S.J., Norenzayan A. The weirdest people in the world. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2010, 33:61-83. 10.1017/S0140525X0999152X.
85. Herrnstein R.J., Murray C. The bell curve 1994, Free Press, New York, NY.
86. Heyman G.D., Gelman S.A. Beliefs about the origin of human psychological traits. Developmental Psychology 2000, 36:663-678. 10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.663.
87. Hinshaw S.P., Stier A. Stigma as related to mental disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2008, 4:367-393. 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141245.
88. Hirschfeld L., Gelman S. Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture 1994, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
89. Hong Y., Levy S.R., Chiu C. The contribution of the lay theories approach to the study of groups. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2001, 5:98-106. 10.1207/S15327957PSPR0502_1.
90. Horvath M., Ryan A.M. Antecedent and potential moderators of the relationship between attitudes and hiring discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. Sex Roles 2003, 48:115-130. 10.1023/A:1022499121222.
91. Horwitz A.V. Media portrayals and health inequalities: A case study of characterizations of gene × environment interactions. Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 2005, 60(Special Issue 2):48-52.
92. Isay R.A. Being homosexual: Gay men and their development 1989, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, NY.
93. Jablonka E., Lamb M.J. Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioral, and symbolic variation in the history of life 2006, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
94. Jacobs P.A., Brunton M., Melville M.M., Brittan R.P., McClement W.F. Aggressive behavior, mental subnormality, and the XYY male. Nature 1965, December 25, 208:1351-1352. 10.1038/2081351a0.
95. Jayaratne, T. E. (2002, June). White and Black Americans' genetic explanations for perceived gender, class, and race differences: The psychology of genetic beliefs. Invited lecture at the 2002 Human Genome Lecture Series, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD.
96. Jayaratne T.E., Gelman S., Feldbaum M., Sheldon J., Petty E., Kardia S. The perennial debate: Nature, nurture, or choice? Black and White Americans' explanations for individual differences. Review of General Psychology 2009, 13:24-33. 10.1037/a0014227.
97. Jayaratne T.E., Ybarra O., Sheldon J.P., Brown T.N., Feldbaum M., Pfeffer C.A., Petty E.M. White Americans' genetic lay theories of race differences and sexual orientation: Their relationship with prejudice toward Blacks and gay men and lesbians. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 2006, 9:77-94. 10.1177/1368430206059863.
98. Jensen A.R. How much can we boost IQ and scholastic achievement?. Harvard Educational Review 1969, 39:1-123. http://www.hepg.org/main/her/Index.html.
99. Jocklin V., McGue M., Lykken D.T. Personality and divorce: A genetic analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1996, 71:288-299. 10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.288.
100. Johnson W. Genetic and environmental influences on behavior: Capturing all the interplay. Psychological Review 2007, 114:423-440. 10.1037/0033-295X.114.2.423.
101. Johnson W. Understanding the genetics of intelligence: Can height help? Can corn oil?. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2010, 19:177-182. 10.1177/0963721410370136.
102. International Schizophrenia Consortium Common polygenic variation contributes to risk of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder [Letter]. Nature 2009, August 6, 460:748-752. 10.1038/nature08185.
103. Keil F. Concepts, kinds, and cognitive development 1989, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
104. Keller J. In genes we trust: The biological component of psychological essentialism and its relationship to mechanisms of motivated social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2005, 88:686-702. 10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.686.
105. Kendler K.S. " A gene for ...": The nature of gene action in psychiatric disorders. American Journal for Psychiatry 2005, 162:1243-1252. 10.1176/appi.ajp.162.7.1243.
106. Kendler K.S., Thornton L.M., Pedersen N.L. Tobacco consumption in Swedish twins reared apart and reared together. Archives of General Psychiatry 2000, 57:886-892. 10.1001/archpsyc.57.9.886.
107. Kerr A., Shakespeare T. Genetic politics: From eugenics to genome 2002, New Clarion Press, Cheltenham, England.
108. Kevles D.H. In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity 1985, University of California Press, Berkeley.
109. King M.-C., Motulsky A.G. Human genetics: Mapping human history. Science 2002, December 20, 298:2342-2343. 10.1126/science.1080373.
110. Kraft P., Hunter D.J. Genetic risk prediction: Are we there yet?. New England Journal of Medicine 2009, 360:1701-1703. 10.1056/NEJMp0810107.
111. Lakoff G., Johnson M. The metaphorical structure of the human conceptual system. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal 1980, 4:195-208. http://www.wiley.com/bw/journal.asp?ref=0364-0213.
112. Landén M., Innala S. The effect of a biological explanation on attitudes toward homosexual persons: A Swedish national sample study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 2002, 56:181-186. 10.1080/080394802317607156.
113. Langer E.J., Abelson R.P. A patient by any other name: Clinician group difference in labeling bias. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1974, 42:4-9. 10.1037/h0036054.
114. Lanie A.D., Jayaratne T.E., Sheldon J.P., Kardia S.L.R., Anderson E.S., Feldbaum M., Petty E.M. Exploring the public understanding of basic genetic concepts. Journal of Genetic Counseling 2004, 13:305-320. 10.1023/B:JOGC.0000035524.66944.6d.
115. Lee A. The book of life in the double helix: Cultural differences in biological beliefs 2009, Unpublished master's thesis, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
116. Levy S.R., Stroessner S.J., Dweck C.S. Stereotype formation and endorsement: The role of implicit theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1998, 74:1421-1436. 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1421.
117. Lewontin R.C., Rose S., Kamin L.J. Not in our genes 1984, Pantheon, New York, NY.
118. Medin D.L., Ortony A. Comments on Part I: Psychological essentialism. Similarity and analogical reasoning 1989, 179-195. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 10.1017/CBO9780511529863.009. S. Vosniadou, A. Ortony (Eds.).
119. Mednick S.A., Brennan P., Kandel E. Predisposition to violence. Aggressive Behavior 1988, 14:25-33. 10.1002/1098-2337(1988)14:1<25::AID-AB2480140105>3.0.CO;2-9.
120. Meehl P.E. Specific etiology and other forms of strong influence: Some quantitative meanings. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 1977, 2:33-53. http://jmp.oxfordjournals.org/.
121. Mehta S., Farina A. Is being " sick" really better? Effect of the disease view of mental disorder on stigma. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 1997, 16:405-419. http://www.guilford.com/cgi-bin/cartscript.cgi?page=pr/jnsc.htm&dir=periodicals/per_psych&cart_id=.
122. Miller G.E., Chen E. Stressful experience and diminished expression of genes encoding the glucocorticoid receptor and b2-adrenergic receptor in children with asthma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006, 103:5496-5501. 10.1073/pnas.0506312103.
123. Monterosso J., Royzman E.B., Schwartz B. Explaining away responsibility: Effects of scientific explanation on perceived culpability. Ethics and Behavior 2005, 15:139-158. 10.1207/s15327019eb1502_4.
124. Moor L. A gene for delinquency: Myth or reality?. Annales Médico-Psychologiques 1972, 2:520-527. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00034487.
125. Moore G.E. Principia ethica 1903, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
126. Morse A. Searching for the Holy Grail: The Human Genome Project and its implications. Journal of Law and Health 1998, 13:219-256. PMid:10947395.
127. Nelkin D., Lindee M.S. The DNA mystique: The gene as a cultural icon 1995, Freeman, New York, NY.
128. Nisbett R. Intelligence and how to get it: Why schools and cultures count 2009, Norton, New York, NY.
129. No S., Hong Y., Liao H., Lee K., Wood D., Chao M. Lay theory of race affects and moderates Asian Americans' responses toward American culture. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2008, 95:991-1004. 10.1037/a0012978.
130. Norenzayan A., Heine S.J. Psychological universals: What are they and how can we know?. Psychological Bulletin 2005, 131:763-784. 10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.763.
131. Nugent H. Race row: Nobel scientist James Watson scraps tour after being suspended http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article2694632.ece.
132. Parrott R.L., Silk K.J., Dillow M.R., Krieger J.R., Harris T., Condit C.M. The development and validation of tools to assess genetic discrimination and genetically based racism. Journal of the National Medical Association 2005, 97:980-990. PMid:16080668.
133. Paul D.B. Controlling human heredity: 1865 to the present 1995, Humanities Press, Atlantic Highlands, NJ.
134. Pearson H. One gene, twenty years. Nature 2009, July 8, 460:164-169. 10.1038/460164a.
135. Petronis A. Epigenetics as a unifying principle in the aetiology of complex traits and diseases. Nature 2010, June 10, 465:721-727. 10.1038/nature09230.
136. Phelan J.C. Geneticization of deviant behavior and consequences for stigma: The case of mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 2005, 46:307-322. 10.1177/002214650504600401.
137. Phelan J.C., Cruz-Rojas R., Reiff M. Genes and stigma: The connection between perceived genetic etiology and attitudes and beliefs about mental illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills 2002, 6:159-185. http://journalseek.net/cgi-bin/journalseek/journalsearch.cgi?field=issn&query=1097-3435.
138. Phelan J.C., Yang L., Cruz-Rojas R. Effects of attributing serious mental illnesses to genetic causes on orientations to treatment. Psychiatric Services 2006, 57:382-387. 10.1176/appi.ps.57.3.382.
139. Plato The republic (W. H. D. Rouse, Trans.). Great dialogues of Plato 1956, 125-422. Mentor, New York, NY. E.H. Warmington, P.G. Rouse (Eds.).
140. Plomin R., DeFries J.C., McClearn G.E., McGuffin P. Behavioral Genetics 2008, Worth, New York, NY. 5th ed.
141. Pratto F., Sidanius J., Stallworth L.M., Malle B.F. Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1994, 67:741-763. 10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741.
142. Prentice D.A., Miller D.T. Essentializing differences between women and men. Psychological Science 2006, 17:129-135. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01675.x.
143. R. vs. Luedecke, O. J. No. 5088, Ontario Court of Justice 294 (2005).
144. Raine A. The psychopathology of crime: Criminal behavior as a clinical disorder 1993, Academic Press, New York, NY.
145. Read J., Harré N. The role of biological and genetic causal beliefs in the stigmatization of " mental patients" Journal of Mental Health 2001, 10:223-235. 10.1080/09638230123129.
146. Resnick D.B. The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical problems and solutions. Politics and Life Sciences 1999, 18:15-23. http://politicsandthelifesciences.org/.
147. Rice G., Anderson C., Risch N., Ebers G. Male homosexuality: Absence of linkage to microsatellite markers at Xq28. Science 1999, April 23, 284:665-667. 10.1126/science.284.5414.665.
148. Rips L.I. Similarity, typicality, and categorization. Similarity and analogical reasoning 1989, 21-59. Cambridge University Press, New York, NY. 10.1017/CBO9780511529863.004. S. Vosniadou, A. Ortony (Eds.).
149. Risch N., Herrell R., Lehner T., Liang K., Eaves L., Hoh J., Ries Merikangas K. Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. The Journal of the American Medical Association 2009, 301:2462-2471. 10.1001/jama.2009.878.
150. Robertson, J. (in press). Blood and beauty: Eugenic modernity and empire in Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press.
151. Rosenberg N.A., Pritchard J.K., Weber J.L., Cann H.M., Field K.K., Zhivotovsky L.A., Feldman M.A. Genetic structure of human populations. Science 2002, December 20, 298:2381-2385. 10.1126/science.1078311.
152. Rothbart M., Taylor M. Category labels and social reality: Do we view social categories as natural kinds?. Language, interaction and social cognition 1992, 11-36. Sage, Newbury Park, CA. G.R.S. Semin, K. Fiedler (Eds.).
153. Rothman B.K. Genetic maps and human imaginations 1998, Norton, New York, NY.
154. Rutter M. Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained 2006, Blackwell, Oxford, England.
155. Sakalli N. Application of the attribution-value model of prejudice toward homosexuality. Journal of Social Psychology 2002, 142:264-271. 10.1080/00224540209603899.
156. Schaeffer F.A., Koop C.E. Whatever happened to the human race? 1979, Revell, Old Tappan, NJ.
157. Schnittker J. An uncertain revolution: Why the rise of a genetic model of mental illness has not increased tolerance. Social Science & Medicine 2008, 67:1370-1381. 10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.07.007.
158. Shostak S., Freese J., Link B.G., Phelan J.C. The politics of the gene: Social status and beliefs about genetics for individual outcomes. Social Psychology Quarterly 2009, 72:77-93. 10.1177/019027250907200107.
159. Singer E., Antonucci T.C., Burmeister M., Couper M.P., Raghunatahan T.E., Van Hoewyk J. Beliefs about genes and environment as determinants of behavioral characteristics. International Journal of Public Opinion Research 2007, 19:331-353. 10.1093/ijpor/edm016.
160. Singer E., Corning A.D., Lamias M. Trends: Genetic testing, engineering, and therapy: Awareness and attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly 1998, 62:633-664. 10.1086/297864.
161. Sousa P., Atran S., Medin D. Essentialism and folkbiology: Evidence from Brazil. Journal of Cognition and Culture 2002, 2:195-223. 10.1163/15685370260225099.
162. Steele C.M., Aronson J. Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1995, 69:797-811. 10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797.
163. Sternthal, M., Jayaratne, T. E., & Feldbaum, M. (2009). Is there a genetic explanatory style? The link from explanations for individual to perceived group differences. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
164. Stoltenberg S.F., Burmeister M. Recent progress in psychiatric genetics: Some hope but no hype. Human Molecular Genetics 2000, 9:927-935. 10.1093/hmg/9.6.927.
165. Summers L. Remarks at National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Conference on diversifying the science & engineering workforce http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/nber.html.
166. Taylor M.G. The development of children's beliefs about social and biological aspects of gender differences. Child Development 1996, 67:1555-1571. 10.2307/1131718.
167. Teachman B.A., Gapinski K., Brownell K., Rawlins M., Jeyaram S. Demonstrations of implicit anti-fat bias: The impact of providing causal information and evoking empathy. Health Psychology 2003, 22:68-78. 10.1037/0278-6133.22.1.68.
168. Turkheimer E. Heritability and biological explanation. Psychological Review 1998, 105:782-791. 10.1037/0033-295X.105.4.782-791.
169. Turkheimer E. Three laws of behavioral genetics and what they mean. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2000, 9:160-164. 10.1111/1467-8721.00084.
170. Turkheimer E., Haley A., Waldron M., D'Onofrio B., Gottesman I. Socioeconomic status modifies heritability of IQ in young children. Psychological Science 2003, 14:623-628. 10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1475.x.
171. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization The race concept: Results of an inquiry 1970, Greenwood Press, Westport, CT.
172. Vohs K.D., Schooler J. The value of believing in free will: Encouraging a belief in determinism increases cheating. Psychological Science 2008, 19:49-54. 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02045.x.
173. Walker I., Read J. The differential effectiveness of psychosocial and biogenetic causal explanations in reducing negative attitudes toward " mental illness" Psychiatry: Interpersonal and Biological Processes 2002, 65:313-325. 10.1521/psyc.65.4.313.20238.
174. Waxman S., Medin D., Ross N. Folkbiological reasoning from a cross-cultural development perspective: Early essentialist notions are shaped by cultural beliefs. Developmental Psychology 2007, 43:294-308. 10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.294.
175. Weiner B., Perry R.P., Magnusson J. An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1988, 55:738-748. 10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.738.
176. Williams M.J., Eberhardt J. Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2008, 94:1033-1047. 10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1033.
177. Yzerbyt V.Y., Demoulin S. Intergroup relations. The handbook of social psychology 2010, 1024-1083. Wiley, New York, NY. 5th ed. S.T. Fiske, D.T. Gilbert, G. Lindzey (Eds.).
178. Zoghbi H.Y., Orr H.T. Glutamine repeats and neurodegeneration. Annual Review of Neuroscience 2000, 23:217-247. 10.1146/annurev.neuro.23.1.217.