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Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 19-41

Unexpected languages: Multilingualism and contact in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century North America

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EID: 79959563315     PISSN: 01616463     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.17953/aicr.35.2.d068130q08554n06     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (13)

References (61)
  • 2
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    • Dynamics of recent linguistic contact
    • Languages, ed. Ives Goddard (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press)
    • E.g., see Michael Silverstein's "Dynamics of Recent Linguistic Contact," in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 17, Languages, ed. Ives Goddard (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1996), 117-36.
    • (1996) Handbook of North American Indians , vol.17 , pp. 117-136
    • Silverstein'S, M.1
  • 3
    • 79959544616 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On setting expectations: Challenging 'extinction' through modern Miami language practices
    • astute discussion of the "extinction" of myaamia in his article
    • See Wesley Leonard's astute discussion of the "extinction" of myaamia in his article, "On Setting Expectations: Challenging 'Extinction' through Modern Miami Language Practices," American Indian Culture and Research Journal 35, no. 2 (2011): 135-60.
    • (2011) American Indian Culture and Research Journal , vol.35 , Issue.2 , pp. 135-160
    • Leonard'S, W.1
  • 6
    • 84929066423 scopus 로고
    • Forest diplomats: The role of interpreters in Indian-white relations on the early American frontier
    • Yasuhide Kawashima, "Forest Diplomats: The Role of Interpreters in Indian-White Relations on the Early American Frontier," American Indian Quarterly 13, no. 1 (Winter 1989): 10.
    • (1989) American Indian Quarterly , vol.13 , Issue.1 , pp. 10
    • Kawashima, Y.1
  • 7
    • 84929066423 scopus 로고
    • Forest diplomats: The role of interpreters in Indian-white relations on the early American frontier
    • Yasuhide Kawashima, "Forest Diplomats: The Role of Interpreters in Indian-White Relations on the Early American Frontier," American Indian Quarterly 13, no. 1 (Winter 1989): 10. Ibid.
    • (1989) American Indian Quarterly , vol.13 , Issue.1 , pp. 10
    • Kawashima, Y.1
  • 8
    • 84928505070 scopus 로고
    • Cultural brokers and intercultural politics: New York-iroquois relations, 1664-1701
    • "In the native village where [Hillitie] was reared-her mother was Mohawk and her father Dutch-she had been impressed by the teachings of French priests. Ridiculed for her beliefs, she moved to Schenectady, and sometime before 1673 she became one of a handful of Indians who received baptism at Albany before the arrival of Dellius. By 1680 her bicultural background and linguistic talents had come to the attention of the Albany anglicizers, who could always use someone fluent in both Dutch and Mohawk. Although her twin handicaps as a woman and a metís prevented her from ever becoming an equal to Schuyler, Livingston, and Dellius, Hilletie possessed ideal credentials to mediate between Dutch anglicizers and Iroquois anglophiles, and by the early 1690s the province was regularly paying her a salary for her services." As quoted in
    • "In the native village where [Hillitie] was reared-her mother was Mohawk and her father Dutch-she had been impressed by the teachings of French priests. Ridiculed for her beliefs, she moved to Schenectady, and sometime before 1673 she became one of a handful of Indians who received baptism at Albany before the arrival of Dellius. By 1680 her bicultural background and linguistic talents had come to the attention of the Albany anglicizers, who could always use someone fluent in both Dutch and Mohawk. Although her twin handicaps as a woman and a metís prevented her from ever becoming an equal to Schuyler, Livingston, and Dellius, Hilletie possessed ideal credentials to mediate between Dutch anglicizers and Iroquois anglophiles, and by the early 1690s the province was regularly paying her a salary for her services." As quoted in Daniel K. Richter, "Cultural Brokers and Intercultural Politics: New York-Iroquois Relations, 1664-1701," The Journal of American History 75, no. 1 ( June 1988): 52-53.
    • (1988) The Journal of American History , vol.75 , Issue.1 , pp. 52-53
    • Richter, D.K.1
  • 9
    • 79959565965 scopus 로고
    • Faithful, knowing and prudent: Andrew Montour as interpreter and cultural broker, 1740-1772
    • As mentioned, ed. Margaret Connell Szasz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press), "Madame Montour began to serve as interpreter at Anglo-Iroquois conferences in New York [around 1709]. By the time of her son's [Andrew] birth in the mid- to late 1710s, she exercised considerable influence in New York's Indian affairs, having made herself indispensable to the colony's lieutenant-governor, Robert Hunter (1710-19)⋯ . Throughout the 1710s and 1720s, Madame Montour and her Oneida husband, Carondawana, their young children presumably nearby, attended many Indian conferences in New York."
    • As mentioned in Nancy L. Hagedorn's article, "'Faithful, knowing and prudent': Andrew Montour as Interpreter and Cultural Broker, 1740-1772," in Between Indian and White Worlds: Cultural Broker, ed. Margaret Connell Szasz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 44-45: "Madame Montour began to serve as interpreter at Anglo-Iroquois conferences in New York [around 1709]. By the time of her son's [Andrew] birth in the mid- to late 1710s, she exercised considerable influence in New York's Indian affairs, having made herself indispensable to the colony's lieutenant-governor, Robert Hunter (1710-19)⋯ . Throughout the 1710s and 1720s, Madame Montour and her Oneida husband, Carondawana, their young children presumably nearby, attended many Indian conferences in New York."
    • (1994) Between Indian and White Worlds: Cultural Broker , pp. 44-45
    • Hagedorn, N.L.1
  • 10
    • 0004092356 scopus 로고
    • Even contemporary anthropological discussions of multilingualism begin by addressing the linguistic capital of language acquisition, e.g., see, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
    • Even contemporary anthropological discussions of multilingualism begin by addressing the linguistic capital of language acquisition, e.g., see Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
    • (1991) Language and Symbolic Power
    • Bourdieu, P.1
  • 11
    • 0348002165 scopus 로고
    • Women and second-language use: An introduction
    • A typical example is Pauline Burton's statement in her article, ed. Pauline Burton, Ketaki Kushari Dyson, and Shirley Ardener (Oxford: Berg), "Second-language competence is not value-free; its acquisition, its use and the way in which it is perceived are affected by the status of the users" (11). Although true, this need not be the only or even first question to explore
    • A typical example is Pauline Burton's statement in her article, "Women and Second-Language Use: An Introduction," in Bilingual Women: Anthropological Approaches to Second-Language Use, ed. Pauline Burton, Ketaki Kushari Dyson, and Shirley Ardener (Oxford: Berg, 1994), 1-29: "Second-language competence is not value-free; its acquisition, its use and the way in which it is perceived are affected by the status of the users" (11). Although true, this need not be the only or even first question to explore.
    • (1994) Bilingual Women: Anthropological Approaches to Second-Language Use , pp. 1-29
  • 12
    • 84929066423 scopus 로고
    • Forest diplomats
    • Kawashima addressed early translators, or forest diplomats, "such as Croghan, Montour, Wiser, McKee, Robert Rogers, and Abraham Bosomworth, who regularly served as messengers, arbitrators and negotiators, diplomatic agents, and peacemakers." He continued his discussion with an outline of how he differentiated translators from interpreters: "These men, different from the interpreters on the subsequent frontiers, whose function was largely limited to translation, served as forest diplomats, whether they were employed by the colonial governments or by the imperial superintendents. They rendered valuable services because they were experts in the Indian languages and possessed a broad understanding of Indian customs and tradition" (12)
    • Yasuhide Kawashima, "Forest Diplomats," American Indian Quarterly 13 (Winter 1989): 1-14. Kawashima addressed early translators, or forest diplomats, "such as Croghan, Montour, Wiser, McKee, Robert Rogers, and Abraham Bosomworth, who regularly served as messengers, arbitrators and negotiators, diplomatic agents, and peacemakers." He continued his discussion with an outline of how he differentiated translators from interpreters: "These men, different from the interpreters on the subsequent frontiers, whose function was largely limited to translation, served as forest diplomats, whether they were employed by the colonial governments or by the imperial superintendents. They rendered valuable services because they were experts in the Indian languages and possessed a broad understanding of Indian customs and tradition" (12).
    • (1989) American Indian Quarterly , vol.13 , pp. 1-14
    • Kawashima, Y.1
  • 13
  • 14
  • 15
    • 79959541575 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • I have only a comrade's constancy, a fellow-soldier's frankness, fidelity, fraternity: Hannah foulkes chance, 1851-1871
    • Karl Hele, "'I have only a comrade's constancy, a fellow-soldier's frankness, fidelity, fraternity': Hannah Foulkes Chance, 1851-1871," Journal of the Canadian Church Historical Society XLIV (2002): 256.
    • (2002) Journal of the Canadian Church Historical Society , vol.45 , pp. 256
    • Hele, K.1
  • 16
    • 0039432672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Discovery of gold on the klondike: Perspectives from oral tradition
    • ed. Jennifer S. H. Brown and Elizabeth Vibert (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press)
    • Julie Cruikshank, "Discovery of Gold on the Klondike: Perspectives from Oral Tradition," in Reading Beyond Words: Contexts for Native History, ed. Jennifer S. H. Brown and Elizabeth Vibert (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 1996), 437-38.
    • (1996) Reading beyond Words: Contexts for Native History , pp. 437-438
    • Cruikshank, J.1
  • 18
    • 79959539914 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This does not include other reading languages commonly mentioned such as Latin and (Ancient) Greek. We also do no include examples from other European languages such as German and Dutch, which were commonly spoken during an earlier period on the eastern edge of the Old Northwest, or Russian, which was spoken on the northern edges of the Oregon Territory
    • This does not include other reading languages commonly mentioned such as Latin and (Ancient) Greek. We also do no include examples from other European languages such as German and Dutch, which were commonly spoken during an earlier period on the eastern edge of the Old Northwest, or Russian, which was spoken on the northern edges of the Oregon Territory.
  • 19
    • 79959573369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This was reported in Hagedorn
    • This was reported in Hagedorn, "Faithful, knowing and prudent," 46-52.
    • Faithful, Knowing and Prudent , pp. 46-52
  • 20
    • 79959571518 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • accessed April 5, 2005
    • See the Biography of Conrad Weiser, http://www.berksweb.com/weisertext. html (accessed April 5, 2005);
    • Biography of Conrad Weiser
  • 21
    • 79959534841 scopus 로고
    • originally published in the Historical Review of Berks County [Summer 1960], accessed April 5, 2005), for a fascinating example of sending a European teen to live with local Native peoples in order to train him as an interpreter. for a fascinating example of sending a European teen to live with local Native peoples in order to train him as an interpreter
    • John J. Vrooman, "Conrad Weiser and the New York Colony," http://www.berkshistory.org/articles/weiser-ny-1960.html (originally published in the Historical Review of Berks County [Summer 1960], accessed April 5, 2005), for a fascinating example of sending a European teen to live with local Native peoples in order to train him as an interpreter.
    • (1960) Conrad Weiser and the New York Colony
    • Vrooman, J.J.1
  • 24
    • 79959543256 scopus 로고
    • The ability to speak for other groups across linguistic boundaries was highly valued in the Old Northwest, as outlined by, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, "The prototype of Algonquian alliance chiefs was Onanghisse of the Potawatomis⋯ . His activities at the great peace conference of 1701 which ended the Iroquois wars are typical. He spoke to the French for the Sauks in order to arrange compensation for a Frenchmen the Sauks had killed among the Sioux. He spoke for the Mascoutens who wished to make retribution for pillaging Perrot's goods and attempting to burn him at the torture stake
    • The ability to speak for other groups across linguistic boundaries was highly valued in the Old Northwest, as outlined by Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region 1650-1815 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 39: "The prototype of Algonquian alliance chiefs was Onanghisse of the Potawatomis⋯ . His activities at the great peace conference of 1701 which ended the Iroquois wars are typical. He spoke to the French for the Sauks in order to arrange compensation for a Frenchmen the Sauks had killed among the Sioux. He spoke for the Mascoutens who wished to make retribution for pillaging Perrot's goods and attempting to burn him at the torture stake.
    • (1991) The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region 1650-1815 , pp. 39
    • White, R.1
  • 25
    • 79959554598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On different occasions at the same conference, he spoke for the Potawatomis, Fox, and Winnebagos, (accessed September 15, 2009)
    • On different occasions at the same conference, he spoke for the Potawatomis, Fox, and Winnebagos." Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma, http://www.wyandottenation.org/history/walker-journals/04-walker-family.html (accessed September 15, 2009).
    • Wyandotte Nation of Oklahoma
  • 26
    • 33645379442 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Spokane: Eastern Washington State Historical Society Spokane, 75n46
    • W. S. Lewis and Naojiro Murakami, eds., Ranald MacDonald (Spokane: Eastern Washington State Historical Society Spokane, 1923), 74-77, 75n46.
    • (1923) Ranald MacDonald , pp. 74-77
    • Lewis, W.S.1    Murakami, N.2
  • 31
    • 79959562831 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tolmie, william fraser
    • accessed June 3, 2010
    • W. Kaye Lamb, "Tolmie, William Fraser," Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online, http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id-nbr= 5873&&PHPSESSID=gg7ipmiifunnvd0joevl3dnhh6 (accessed June 3, 2010).
    • Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
    • Lamb, W.K.1
  • 32
    • 79959546179 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • When the Washington Territory (1853) was set up with Isaac I. Stephens as governor, Tolmie was instrumental in negotiating a marginally reasonable treaty for the Nisqually people. His fluency in Nisqually and his commitment to the relationships he had built in the region during the time that he had been in charge of the Puget Sound Agricultural Company made Tolmie a formidable advocate
    • When the Washington Territory (1853) was set up with Isaac I. Stephens as governor, Tolmie was instrumental in negotiating a marginally reasonable treaty for the Nisqually people. His fluency in Nisqually and his commitment to the relationships he had built in the region during the time that he had been in charge of the Puget Sound Agricultural Company made Tolmie a formidable advocate.
  • 35
    • 79959558830 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ranald MacDonald was the son of Archibald MacDonald and grandson, on his mother's side, of Chief Com-comly. His personal history is a tale of multilingualism. The act for which he was most famous occurred in 1848, when he "permitted himself to be set adrift from a whaler off the coast of Hokkaido, North Japan, and became the first teacher of English within the Japanese Empire. Some of his students served as interpreters when Commodore Perry visited Japan in 1853." Ibid., 23
    • Ranald MacDonald was the son of Archibald MacDonald and grandson, on his mother's side, of Chief Com-comly. His personal history is a tale of multilingualism. The act for which he was most famous occurred in 1848, when he "permitted himself to be set adrift from a whaler off the coast of Hokkaido, North Japan, and became the first teacher of English within the Japanese Empire. Some of his students served as interpreters when Commodore Perry visited Japan in 1853." Ibid., 23.
  • 36
    • 79959562210 scopus 로고
    • series C, Bancroft Collection, Pacific Coast Manuscripts (University of California, Berkeley), as transcribed in National Archives of Canada (hereinafter referred to as NAC), Manuscript Group 29 C15
    • C. A. Bayley, Early Life on Vancouver Island, series C, no. 3, Bancroft Collection, Pacific Coast Manuscripts (University of California, Berkeley, 1879), as transcribed in National Archives of Canada (hereinafter referred to as NAC), Manuscript Group 29 C15.
    • (1879) Early Life on Vancouver Island , Issue.3
    • Bayley, C.A.1
  • 39
    • 79959550448 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cf. Finlayson's discussion of language training at Lachine, QC
    • Cf. Finlayson's discussion of language training at Lachine, QC.
  • 42
    • 79959557998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Montreal iroquois engagés in the western fur trade, 1800-1821
    • ed. T. Binnema, G. J. Ens, and R. C. Macleod (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press)
    • Cited in Jan Grabowski and Nicole St-Onge, "Montreal Iroquois Engagés in the Western Fur Trade, 1800-1821," in From Rupert's Land to Canada, ed. T. Binnema, G. J. Ens, and R. C. Macleod (Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2001), 47-48.
    • (2001) From Rupert's Land to Canada , pp. 47-48
    • Grabowski, J.1    St-Onge, N.2
  • 43
    • 79959557998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Montreal iroquois engagés in the western fur trade, 1800-1821
    • Cited in Jan Grabowski and Nicole St-Onge, "Montreal Iroquois Engagés in the Western Fur Trade, 1800-1821," in From Rupert's Land to Canada (2001), 47-48. Ibid.
    • (2001) From Rupert's Land to Canada , pp. 47-48
    • Grabowski, J.1    St-Onge, N.2
  • 44
    • 79959557998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Montreal iroquois engagés in the western fur trade, 1800-1821
    • Cited in Jan Grabowski and Nicole St-Onge, "Montreal Iroquois Engagés in the Western Fur Trade, 1800-1821," in From Rupert's Land to Canada (2001), Ibid., 45-47.
    • (2001) From Rupert's Land to Canada , pp. 45-47
    • Grabowski, J.1    St-Onge, N.2
  • 45
    • 79959557998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Montreal iroquois engagés in the western fur trade, 1800-1821
    • Cited in Jan Grabowski and Nicole St-Onge, "Montreal Iroquois Engagés in the Western Fur Trade, 1800-1821," in From Rupert's Land to Canada (2001), Ibid., 42.
    • (2001) From Rupert's Land to Canada , pp. 42
    • Grabowski, J.1    St-Onge, N.2
  • 47
    • 79959572961 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Presbyterian and Methodist missionaries often refer to their calling in the Oregon Territory as originating with the Flathead Indians, who apparently made their way to St. Louis to ask for missionaries who would bring them the Gospel. In the following account, the call for Christianity came through the Iroquois interactions with the Flathead. The denominational wars pitting Protestants against Catholics (and English against French) in the Old Northwest was reproduced in this version of the call for (Catholic) missions to the Oregon Territory, with the Iroquois as the middle men: "Writing in 1871, Mr C.S. Jones [Rep. Comm'r Ind. Aff., 1871, p. 425], United States Indian Agent at the Flathead agency, Jocko reserve, Montana, attributes to Iroquois from Canada the stimulating of the Flathead Indians to send to St Louis in 1839 the deputation whose visit resulted in the coming to their country of Father de Smet, the famous missionary, who labored so well among the Indians of Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia-Kootenay, Flatheads, and others. According to Mr Jones, 'nearly forty years since [about 1820] some Iroquois from Canada, trading with the Flatheads, told them of the teaching of the Jesuit fathers, who for many previous years had been laboring among them.'"
    • (1871) Rep. Comm'r Ind. Aff. , pp. 425
    • Jones, C.S.1
  • 48
    • 79959539097 scopus 로고
    • Iroquois in Northwestern Canada
    • (New Series)
    • Alexander F. Chamberlain, "Iroquois in Northwestern Canada," American Anthropologist (New Series) 6, no. 4 ( July-September 1904): 463.
    • (1904) American Anthropologist , vol.6 , Issue.4 , pp. 463
    • Chamberlain, A.F.1
  • 49
    • 79959544541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • One of the most fascinating examples of bilingualism by immersion is the case of Conrad Weiser (b. 1696), a native of Germany who emigrated with his father and several siblings to New York during his teens. According to, (accessed April 1, 2009), "Conrad Weiser and the New York Colony, ⋯ recognizing the acute need of having someone in their group who could converse directly with the Indians rather than making use of a doubtful and possibly untrustworthy interpreter, John Conrad was successful in arranging for Conrad [Weiser] to spend the winter [of 1713] at the Indian Castle (village) at Fort Hunter at the mouth of the Schoharie River, where he might learn the Indian tongue." Weiser became a famous translator and raised his son (born of Weiser's German-born wife) as bilingual. However, the son died within two years of finishing his schooling at Harvard, effectively quelling the elder Weiser's dream
    • One of the most fascinating examples of bilingualism by immersion is the case of Conrad Weiser (b. 1696), a native of Germany who emigrated with his father and several siblings to New York during his teens. According to John J. Vrooman, in his article for the Historical Society of Berks County, http://www.berkshistory.org/articles/weiser-ny-1960.html (accessed April 1, 2009), "Conrad Weiser and the New York Colony, ⋯ recognizing the acute need of having someone in their group who could converse directly with the Indians rather than making use of a doubtful and possibly untrustworthy interpreter, John Conrad was successful in arranging for Conrad [Weiser] to spend the winter [of 1713] at the Indian Castle (village) at Fort Hunter at the mouth of the Schoharie River, where he might learn the Indian tongue." Weiser became a famous translator and raised his son (born of Weiser's German-born wife) as bilingual. However, the son died within two years of finishing his schooling at Harvard, effectively quelling the elder Weiser's dream.
    • Historical Society of Berks County
    • Vroomani, J.J.1
  • 51
    • 79959565108 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • As Hagedorn (ibid., 53) notes, one of Madame Montour's daughters, "a Moravian convert at New Salem, Ohio, was described in 1791 as 'a living polyglot of the tongues of the West, speaking English, French and six Indian languages.'" An interesting outcome of such fluid identities was that one of Andrew Montour's descendants was among the earliest "American" (read "white" settler) emigrants to the old Oregon Territory during the mid-1830s.
  • 52
    • 79959546799 scopus 로고
    • unpublished manuscript, Bancroft Library
    • Roderick Finalyson, Diary (unpublished manuscript, Bancroft Library, 1891).
    • (1891) Diary
    • Finalyson, R.1
  • 56
    • 79959545763 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • At least six of the people seated around that table died in the massacre or in its aftermath, including Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, Helen Meek, Mary Ann Bridger, and two of the Sager children
    • Elizabeth Sager (Helm) in Lockley, Conversations with Pioneer Women, Ibid., 32-33. At least six of the people seated around that table died in the massacre or in its aftermath, including Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, Helen Meek, Mary Ann Bridger, and two of the Sager children.
    • Conversations with Pioneer Women , pp. 32-33
    • Sager, E.1
  • 59
    • 19744377996 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also his footnote on p. 114 referring to other examples of learning Native languages on the playground
    • Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places, 114. See also his footnote on p. 114 referring to other examples of learning Native languages on the playground.
    • Indians in Unexpected Places , pp. 114
    • Deloria1
  • 60
    • 79959557556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • NAC, Reynolds; and Lambton Room records
    • NAC, Record Group 10, vol. 456, Reynolds; and Lambton Room records.
    • Record Group 10 , vol.456


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