Energy and water resources scarcity: Critical infrastructure for growth and economic development in Arizona and Sonora

Natural Resources Journal

Volumn 50, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 645-682

  Scott, Christopher A ^a   Pasqualetti, Martin J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

^b ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE; ASSESSMENT METHOD; CLIMATE CHANGE; DESALINATION; ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; ELECTRICITY GENERATION; ENERGY EFFICIENCY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; GROWTH; INFRASTRUCTURE; IRRIGATION; PARADIGM SHIFT; POLICY MAKING; RENEWABLE RESOURCE; RESOURCE MANAGEMENT; URBANIZATION; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER RESOURCE; WATER SUPPLY;

ARIZONA; MEXICO [NORTH AMERICA]; SONORA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 79957544497     PISSN: 00280739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

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28. We believe that the specter of armed conflict over water resources, even in a trans-boundary context, is overstated.
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33. See HANNAH CHOI GRANADE, JON CREYTS, ANTON DERKACH, PHILIP FARESE, SCOTT NYQUIST & KEN OSTROWSKI, MCKINSEY & COMPANY, UNLOCKING ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN THE U.S. ECONOMY 8 (July 2009), http://www.mckinsey.com/clientservice/electricpowernaturalgas/downloads/us_energy_efficiency_full_report.pdf. Efficiency improvement potential by industry is lower in percentage terms than for commercial and residential use. Industry represents both the largest primary and end-use consumer of energy and the lowest number of users, entailing that commercial and residential efficiency improvement would need to reach large numbers of smaller users.
34. Id. at 71.
35. Jentgen et al., supra note 18, at 87.
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48. Growth and increasing energy demand are rampant across the Southwest United States where per capita power demand is increasing more rapidly than population. Gary Pitzer, The Water-Energy Nexus in the Colorado River Basin, COLORADO RIVER PROJECT, WATER EDUCATION FOUNDATION, RIVER REPORT 7 (Summer 2009), available at http://www.watereducation.org/userfiles/RiverReport_Summer09_WEB.pdf (reporting that in the states of Arizona, Colorado, Nevada, and New Mexico, population grew by 71 percent from 1980 to 2005, while power demand increased by 130 percent over the same period.).
49. ARIZ. ST. UNIV., INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS AND FUNDING ALTERNATIVES FOR ARIZONA: 2008-2032 (May 2008), available at http://www.arizonaic.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=36:-link-to-infrastructure-report-full&catid=3:aic-news&Itemid= 9 (downloadable pdf at website) [hereinafter INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS]
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52. INFRASTRUCTURE NEEDS, supra note 38, at xix.
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58. http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org for more information.
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62. Id.
63. E.g., ARIZ. ADMIN. CODE §§ R14-2-1801-1816 (2007).
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67. The National Water Commission's Public Register of Water Rights lists 64 percent of Sonora's water rights as being concessioned to the Federal Electricity Commission. With the exception of power plants utilizing groundwater in Alamos and Hermosillo, the entire volume of power-plant water is from surface water sources. A combined-cycle gas plant outside Hermosillo utilizes a portion of that city's effluent. See Mexico National Water Commission, Statistics, http://www.conagua.gob.mx/CONAGUA07/Noticias/son.pdf (last visited Nov. 10, 2010).
68. J.A. VEIL, ARGONNE NAT'L LAB., USE OF RECLAIMED WATER FOR POWER PLANT COOLING 1, 2 (Aug. 2007), http://www.evs.anl.gov/pub/doc/ANL-EVS-R07-3_reclaimedwater.pdf [hereinafter VEIL].
69. The first wind farm in Arizona, northwest of Show Low, is soon to be commissioned. Ryan Randazzo, Harvesting Arizona Wind, ARIZ. REPUBLIC (May 12, 2009), http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/news/articles/2009/05/12/20090512biz-windfarm0512.html (last visited Oct. 20, 2010).
70. The verified data were first published in a short article for the Arizona Water Institute. See MARTIN J. PASQUALETTI & SCOTT KELLEY, THE WATER COSTS OF ELECTRICITY IN ARIZONA 6 (2008), available at http://azwaterinstitute.org/media/Cost%20of%20water%20and %20energy%20in%20az (downloadable pdf at site) [hereinafter PASQUALETTI & KELLEY]. The source of the comparative government data was Form EIA-860 "Annual Electric Generator Report," available at http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/eia860.html; and EIA Forms 906, 920, and 923, all of which fall under the title "Combined (Utility, Non-Utility, and Combined Heat & Power Plant) Database," available at http://ftp.eia.gov/ cneaf/electricity/page/eia906_920.html.
71. PASQUALETTI & KELLEY, supra note 58, at 8.
72. Electricity from geothermal power plants is imported from one plant in Imperial Valley. Solar thermal is based on one facility near the Saguaro fossil plant, northwest of Tucson, but should be expected to be higher when more data are available. Larger solar-thermal plants in California use between 800-1,000 gal/MWh.
73. VEIL, supra note 56, at 36. Veil identifies 57 power plants around the United States that use reclaimed water for cooling purposes, with most concentrated in Florida, California, Texas, and Arizona where the availability of freshwater constrains the options. The Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station outside of Phoenix is the plant with the single highest volume (55 million gal/day) of reclaimed water use. This plant makes no subsequent releases of blowdown water to the environment and, instead, evaporates poor quality residual water in open ponds. States that are not water-scarce-including Massachusetts, Maryland, and New Jersey-also make use of reclaimed water for power-plant cooling. In some instances, reclaimed water is used for air pollution control equipment, including scrubbers. This latter use within power plants is expected to increase. See also VEIL, supra note 56, at 28.
74. Blowdown at the Saguaro solar facility amounts to about 2,500 to 3,000 gal/week during the summer and 2,500 to 3,000 gal/10 days during the lower temperature months. PASQUALETTI & KELLEY, supra note 58, at 11 n.2 (2008).
75. Approximately 3800 gallons of RO/DI (reverse osmosis, deionized) water is used per "deluge" wash. Labor-intensive, "full-contact," cleaning requires twice as much water per washing. Between 4,000 and 6,000 gal/day are used for makeup and blowdown, according to Saguaro operator Jeff Lee of APS. We assume 5,000 gallons are lost to produce 10 MWh, which is 500 gal/MWh. Four thousand gallons to produce 12 MWh would yield 333 gal/MWh, remembering that the plant does not run on a steam cycle.
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78. Engineering estimates for that facility are about 928 gal/MWh of withdrawn water. "With wet cooling, the cooling tower represents approximately 90 percent of a Rankine parabolic trough power plant's raw water consumption. The other 10 percent of water consumption includes the steam cycle makeup cycle (8 percent) and mirror washing (2 percent)." Nat'l Renewable Energy Lab., Parabolic Trough Power Plant System Technology, http://www.nrel.gov/csp/troughnet/power_plant_systems.html (last visited Jan. 4, 2011).
79. Air-cooled CSP facilities are expected to use much less water. See BrightSource Energy, BrightSource Energy's Environmental Commitment, http://www.brightsourceenergy.com/about_us/environmental_stewardship/ (last visited Oct. 21, 2010).
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88. About 71 percent of the electricity generated in Arizona remains in the state.
89. Jeffrey C. Silvertooth, Professor and Head, Dep't of Soil, Water & Envtl. Science, Univ. of Ariz., Managing Agricultural Systems in a Non-Stationary World, Address at the Ninth SAHRA Annual Meeting (Sept. 23, 2009), http://chubasco.hwr.arizona.edu/am 2009/sites/chubasco.hwr.arizona.edu.am2009/files/presentations/Session%204/Silver _SAHRA%20Annual%20Meeting%202009.pdf; COMISI ÓN NACIONAL DEL AGUA, ESTADISTICAS DEL AGUA EN MEXICO, 167 (2008), http://www.conagua.gob.mx/CONAGUA07/ Publicaciones/Publicaciones/EAM_2008.pdf.
90. Unless otherwise specified, electrical power data for the state of Sonora used in this analysis were accessed from the Federal Electricity Commission.
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93. Uso Eficiente del Agua y la Energía Eléctrica.
94. Tariff category 09 is "exclusively for low tension power to pump water used to irrigate cropped fields and to light the pump house." Other farm-level power uses are separately metered at different tariff rates. Scott et al., supra note 2.
95. Falling groundwater levels require more power to pump water to the surface. Additionally, where farmers use ponds to temporarily store water pumped at night, until daytime farm laborers distribute water to the crops, additional power may be required. These effects, which tend to reduce the volume of water that each unit of power delivers to crops, are offset by efficiency improvements.
96. Technology advances have reduced the energy demand of conventional seawater desalination from 20 kWh/m3 in the mid-1970s to less than 2 kWh/m3 (under 2,500 kWh/ acre-foot) in 2005.
97. INT'L ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, NUCLEAR POWER AND WATER DESALTING PLANTS FOR SOUTHWEST UNITED STATES AND NORTHWEST MEXICO (1968).
98. Constructed from 1975 to 1992 at a cost of $258 million.
99. Evan R. Ward, "The Politics of Place": Domestic and Diplomatic Priorities of the Colorado River Salinity Control Act (1974), 6 J. POL. ECOLOGY 31 (1999).
100. Karl Kohlhoff & David Roberts, Beyond the Colorado River: Is an International Water Augmentation Consortium in Arizona's Future?, 49 ARIZ. L. REV. 257 (2007).
101. HDR ENG'G, INC., INVESTIGATION OF BINATIONAL DESALINATION FOR THE BENEFIT OF ARIZONA, UNITED STATES, AND SONORA, MEXICO, FINAL REPORT ES-1, ES-7 (2009).
102. Sanya Carleyolsen, Tangled in the Wires: An Assessment of the Existing U.S. Renewable Energy Legal Framework, 46 NAT. RESOURCES J. 759 (2006).