Politics by other means: When does sexual violence threaten international peace and security?

International Peacekeeping

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 244-260

  Anderson, Letitia ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 79956256858     PISSN: 13533312     EISSN: 1743906X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13533311003625134     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. Thom Shanker, 'Sexual Violence', in Roy Gutman, David Rieff and Anthony Dworkin (eds), Crimes of War, New York: W.W. Norton, 2007, pp.369-373.
2. Security Council Report, July 2009, noting, 'Russia believes that sexual violence is not a peace and security issue per se as it is difficult to differentiate between a tactic of war and random crime' (at: www.securitycouncilreport.org). As recently as the 2007 'Women, Peace and Security' debate, several states portrayed sexual violence as an unfortunate byproduct of war beyond the Council's purview.
3. Author's discussions with peacekeepers, NGOs and humanitarians in Rwanda, Liberia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
4. S/RES/1820 (2008), para.1.
5. S/RES/827 (1993); S/RES/955 (1994).
6. S/1994/674 (1994).
7. Judith G. Gardam and Michelle J. Jarvis, Women, Armed Conflict and International Law, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2001, p.144.
8. S/RES/1593 (2005).
9. Elisabeth Rehn and Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Women, War, Peace: The Independent Experts' Assessment, New York: UNIFEM, 2002, p.11.
10. Preliminary report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, UN doc., E/CN.4/1995/42, 22 Nov. 1994, p.64.
11. Nicholas Kristof, 'The Weapon of Rape', New York Times, 15 June 2008 (at: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/15/opinion/15kristof.html).
12. The Charter prohibits the Security Council from intervening in matters 'essentially within the domestic jurisdiction' of a state. The question is whether an issue is domestic, or whether it constitutes a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression.
13. Statement of the United States, 7 Aug. 2009: 'the result is a smouldering anger and insatiable desire for revenge that only worsens the violence and makes peace agreements all the harder to reach or sustain' (at: www.peacewomen.org/un/sc/Open_Debates/Sexual_Violence09/AMmtg.pdf).
14. 1995 Beijing Platform for Action, Ch. IV.E., Women and Armed Conflict, para.135.
15. Art.5, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (17 July 1998) UN doc., A/CONF 183/9.
16. Ibid., Preamble.
17. Ibid., Art.8.
18. Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck, ICRC Study on Customary Rules of International Humanitarian Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 (Rule 93).
19. Guy Horton, 'Dying Alive: A Legal Assessment of Human Rights Violations in Burma', 2005, The Netherlands Ministry for Development Cooperation, p.201 (at: http://burmalibrary.org/docs3/Horton-2005.pdf).
20. Anne-Marie Goetz and Letitia Anderson, 'Women Targeted or Affected by Armed Conflict: What Role for Military Peacekeepers?', report on Wilton Park Conference 914, May 2008, tabled as a Security Council document during the debate on 1820 (S/2008/404).
21. Prosecutor v. Akayesu, ICTR-96-4-T, Judgment, 2 Sept. 1998, (at: www.ictr.org).
22. ICTY, press release, 'Judgment of Trial Chamber II in the Kunarac, Kovac and Vuković Case', The Hague, 22 Feb. 2001.
23. R. Charli Carpenter (ed.), Born of War: Protecting Children of Sexual Violence Survivors in Conflict Zones, West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 2007, p.24.
24. Human Rights Watch, 'Bosnia: Landmark Verdicts for Rape, Torture, and Sexual Enslavement', New York, 22 Feb. 2001.
25. Prosecutor v. Tadić, IT-94-1-T, Judgment, 7 May 1997; Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14, 3 March 2000 (at: www.icty.org).
26. Art.7(2)(e), Rome Statute, (n.15 above).
27. Prosecutor v. Delali (Čelebići), IT-96-21-T, Judgment, 16 Nov. 1998 (at: www.icty.org).
28. For example, Prosecutor v. Furundzija, IT-95-17/1, Judgment, 10 Dec. 1998 (at: www.icty.org).
29. Akayesu (see n.21 above), para.687.
30. Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR), 'International Justice Failing Rape Victims', Jan. 2007 (at: www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/YAOI-6X9A5D?OpenDocument).
31. Prosecutor v. Kunarac, IT-96-23 & IT-96-23/1-T, Judgment, 2001; Prosecutor v. Muhimana, ICTR-95-1B-T, Judgment, 28 Apr. 2005 (at: www.ictr.org).
32. Akayesu (see n.21 above), paras.731-2.
33. Arts.2 and 3, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 9 Dec. 1948, UN doc., A/RES/3/260.
34. Gardam (see n.7 above), p.190.
35. Akayesu (see n.21 above).
36. Fourth Annual Report of the ICTR, Sept. 1999, pp.6,7, UN doc., A/54/315 (at: www.ictr.org/ENGLISH/annualreports/a54/9925571e.htm).
37. Prosecutor v. Musema, ICTR-96-13-T, Judgment, 27 Jan. 2000, para.933 (at: www.ictr.org).
38. Prosecutor v. Nyiramasuhuko, ICTR-98-42-T, 16 Dec. 2004 (at: www.ictr.org).
39. Emily Wax, '"We Want to Make a Light Baby": Arab Militiamen in Sudan Said to Use Rape as Weapon of Ethnic Cleansing', Washington Post Foreign Service, 30 June 2004 (at: http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A16001-2004Jun29.html).
40. Report of the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council resolution 1820 (2008), UN doc., S/2009/362, para.15.
41. Christian Berthelsen, 'Rape Claim Threatens Iraq Security Plan', Los Angeles Times, 22 Feb. 2007.
42. who notes that rape charges against Iraqi police 'threaten to turn people against the security crackdown'.
43. Elisabeth Jean Wood, 'Armed Groups and Sexual Violence: When Is Wartime Rape Rare?', Politics & Society, Vol.37, No.1, 2009, pp.131-161.
44. See, e.g., Čelebići (n.27 above); Prosecutor v. Blǎkić, IT-95-14-T, Judgment, 3 March 2000 para.294; Prosecutor v. Kunarac, IT-96-23, Judgement, 22 Feb. 2001, para.395 (at: www.icty.org).
45. Čelebići (see n.27 above), para.770.
46. Prosecutor v. Blaškić, IT-95-14-T, Judgment, 3 Mar. 2000.
47. Prosecutor v. Semanza, ICTR-97-20-T, Judgment, 15 May 2003, para.478.
48. See, e.g., acquittal in Prosecutor v. Kajelijeli, ICTR-98-44A-T, Judgment, 1 Dec. 2003.
49. Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to Security Council resolution 780 (1992), UN doc., S/1994/674, 27 May 1994 (at: www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/I-II.htm).
50. Lisa Jackson, The Greatest Silence: Rape in the Congo, documentary film, 2008.
51. Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar: Report of the Special Rapporteur, Rajsoomer Lallah, UN doc., E/CN.4/2000/38, p.50.
52. Carpenter (see n.23 above), p.24.
53. S/RES/1889 (2009), para.10.
54. S/RES/1882 (2009), para.16.
55. S/RES/1674 (2006), para.19.
56. See, e.g., Prosecutor v. Brdanin, IT-99-36-T, Judgment, 1 Sept. 2004; Prosecutor v. Todorović, IT-95/1-S, Judgment, 31 July 2001.
57. Charlotte Lindsey, Florence Tercier and Letitia Anderson, Addressing the Needs of Women Affected by Armed Conflict: An ICRC Guidance Document, Geneva: ICRC, 2004.
58. 'Liberia's Women Killers', BBC News, 26 Aug. 2003 (at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3181529.stm).
59. African Women and Peace Support Group, Liberian Women Peacemakers: Fighting for the Right to be Seen, Heard and Counted, Lawrenceville, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004, p.51.
60. 'Security Council Demands Immediate and Complete Halt to Acts of Sexual Violence against Civilians in Conflict Zones, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 1820 (2008)', UN press release, SC/9364, 19 June 2008.
61. Progress Report of the Secretary-General on ways to combat sub-regional and cross-border problems in West Africa, UN doc., S/2005/86, 11 Feb. 2005: 'attention should be paid to sensitive border areas affected by conflict, whose populations are at risk from a variety of cross-border problems, including... widespread rape'.
62. IWPR (see n.30 above).
63. Carpenter (see n.23 above).
64. Chris Hedges, War Is a Force that Gives Us Meaning, New York: Anchor Books, 2002, p.105.
65. J. Ann Tickner, Gendering World Politics, New York: Columbia University Press, 2001, p.50.
66. International Crisis Group, 'HIV/AIDS as a Security Issue', 19 June 2001 (at: www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?l=1&id=1831); S/RES/1308 (2000).
67. Kristiana Powell, 'HIV/AIDS and Security', Ploughshare Monitor, Vol.24, No.2, 2003.
68. UNAIDS, 'HIV/AIDS and Security', Aug. 2003.
69. UNAIDS press statement, 10 Dec. 2004 (at: http://dsata.unaids.org/Media/Press-Statements01/PS_Violence_10Dec04_en.pdf).
70. Kristen E. Boon, 'Coining a New Jurisdiction: The Security Council as Economic Peacekeeper', Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, Vol.41, No.4, 2008, pp.991-1042.
71. Stephen Leahy, 'Activists Slam World's "Gross Indifference" to DR Congo', Inter Press Service, 4 Dec. 2008.
72. Statement of the Democratic Republic of Congo, Security Council debate, 19 June 2008 (at: www.peacewomen.org/un/sc/Open_Debates/Sexual_Violence08/DRC_eng.pdf).
73. Aida F. Akl, 'Gender Violence Threatens Stability', Voice of America, 19 Nov. 2007.
74. Ann Jones, 'The War against Women: A Dispatch from the West African Front', 2008 (at: www.alternet.org/reproductivejustice/77399/).
75. Jean Bethke Elshtain, Women and War, New York: Basic Books, 1987.
76. Rupert Smith, The Utility of Force: The Art of War in the Modern World, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007.