Placental bed disorders in preterm labor, preterm PROM, spontaneous abortion and abruptio placentae

Best Practice and Research: Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology

Volumn 25, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 313-327

  Romero, Roberto ^a,b,c,d   Kusanovic, Juan Pedro ^a,b,c   Chaiworapongsa, Tinnakorn ^a,b,c   Hassan, Sonia S ^a,b,c  

^a EUNICE KENNEDY SHRIVER NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF CHILD HEALTH AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

^b HUTZEL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c WAYNE STATE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

failure of physiologic transformation; maternal fetal interface; spiral arteries

Indexed keywords

ANGIOGENESIS; ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; HUMAN; LYMPHOCYTE; LYMPHOCYTE FUNCTION; MYOMETRIUM; PLACENTA; PREGNANCY COMPLICATION; PREGNANT WOMAN; PREMATURE FETUS MEMBRANE RUPTURE; PREMATURE LABOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPRODUCTION; REVIEW; SOLUTIO PLACENTAE; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; VASCULAR DISEASE;

ABORTION, SPONTANEOUS; ABRUPTIO PLACENTAE; FEMALE; FETAL MEMBRANES, PREMATURE RUPTURE; HUMANS; OBSTETRIC LABOR, PREMATURE; PLACENTA; PLACENTA DISEASES; PREGNANCY;

EID: 79955877953     PISSN: 15216934     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2011.02.006     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Khong Y & Brosens I. Defective deep placentation. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2011; 25: 301-311.
2. Pijnenborg R, Vercruysse L, Brosens I. Deep placentation. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, in press.
3. Espinoza J, Romero R, Mee KY, Kusanovic JP, Hassan S, Erez O et al. Normal and abnormal transformation of the spiral arteries during pregnancy. J Perinat Med 2006; 34: 447-458. (Pubitemid 44877386)
4. Brosens I, Pijnenborg R, Vercruysse L, et al. The "Great Obstetrical Syndromes" are associated with disorders of deep placentation. Am J Obstet Gynecol, in press.
5. Khong TY, Liddell HS & Robertson WB. Defective haemochorial placentation as a cause of miscarriage: a preliminary study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 649-655. (Pubitemid 17093781)
6. Gun BD, Numanoglu G & Ozdamar SO. The comparison of vessels in elective and spontaneous abortion decidua in first trimester pregnancies: importance of vascular changes in early pregnancy losses. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2006; 85: 402-406. (Pubitemid 43879187)
7. Michel MZ, Khong TY, Clark DA & Beard RW. A morphological and immunological study of human placental bed biopsies in miscarriage. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 97: 984-988.
8. Hustin J, Jauniaux E & Schaaps JP. Histological study of the materno-embryonic interface in spontaneous abortion. Placenta 1990; 11: 477-486.
9. Burton GJ, Jauniaux E. Oxidative stress. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, in press.
10. Ball E, Robson SC, Ayis S, Lyall F & Bulmer JN. Early embryonic demise: no evidence of abnormal spiral artery transformation or trophoblast invasion. J Pathol 2006; 208: 528-534. (Pubitemid 43329339)
11. Ball E, Bulmer JN, Ayis S, Lyall F & Robson SC. Late sporadic miscarriage is associated with abnormalities in spiral artery transformation and trophoblast invasion. J Pathol 2006; 208: 535-542. (Pubitemid 43329340)
12. Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD & Romero R. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet 2008; 371: 75-84.
13. Romero R, Espinoza J, Kusanovic JP, Gotsch F, Hassan S, Erez O et al. The preterm parturition syndrome. BJOG 2006; 113(Suppl. 3): 17-42. (Pubitemid 44934664)
14. Naeye RL & Ross SM. Amniotic fluid infection syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1982; 9: 593-607.
15. Minkoff H. Prematurity: infection as an etiologic factor. Obstet Gynecol 1983; 62: 137-144. (Pubitemid 13028967)
16. Romero R, Mazor M, Wu YK, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, Mitchell MD et al. Infection in the pathogenesis of preterm labor. Semin Perinatol 1988; 12: 262-279.
17. Romero R & Mazor M. Infection and preterm labor. Clin Obstet Gynecol 1988; 31: 553-584.
18. Romero R, Sirtori M, Oyarzun E, Avila C, Mazor M, Callahan R et al. Infection and labor. V. Prevalence, microbiology, and clinical significance of intraamniotic infection in women with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 817-824.
19. Gibbs RS, Romero R, Hillier SL, Eschenbach DA & Sweet RL. A review of premature birth and subclinical infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 166: 1515-1528.
20. Goldenberg RL, Hauth JC & Andrews WW. Intrauterine infection and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1500-1507. (Pubitemid 30318275)
21. Yoon BH, Romero R, Moon JB, Shim SS, Kim M, Kim G et al. Clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 185: 1130-1136. (Pubitemid 33097376)
22. Goncalves LF, Chaiworapongsa T & Romero R. Intrauterine infection and prematurity. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2002; 8: 3-13. (Pubitemid 34754487)
23. Shim SS, Romero R, Hong JS, Park CW, Jun JK, Kim BI et al. Clinical significance of intra-amniotic inflammation in patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet.Gynecol 2004; 191: 1339-1345. (Pubitemid 39421594)
24. Kusanovic JP, Espinoza J, Romero R, Goncalves LF, Nien JK, Soto E et al. Clinical significance of the presence of amniotic fluid 'sludge' in asymptomatic patients at high risk for spontaneous pretermdelivery. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2007; 30: 706-714.
25. Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Espinoza J, Gotsch F, Nhan-Chang CL, Erez O et al. What is amniotic fluid 'sludge'? Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 2007; 30: 793-798.
26. Romero R, Schaudinn C, Kusanovic JP, Gorur A, Gotsch F, Webster P et al. Detection of a microbial biofilm in intraamniotic infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 198: 135.
27. Arias F, Rodriquez L, Rayne SC & Kraus FT. Maternal placental vasculopathy and infection: two distinct subgroups among patients with preterm labor and preterm ruptured membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 585-591. (Pubitemid 23069118)
28. Arias F, Victoria A, Cho K & Kraus F. Placental histology and clinical characteristics of patients with preterm premature rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol 1997; 89: 265-271. (Pubitemid 27057219)
29. Iams JD, Johnson FF, Sonek J, Sachs L, Gebauer C & Samuels P. Cervical competence as a continuum: a study of ultrasonographic cervical length and obstetric performance. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 1097-1103.
30. Hassan SS, Romero R, Berry SM, Dang K, Blackwell SC, Treadwell MC et al. Patients with an ultrasonographic cervical length < or =15 mm have nearly a 50% risk of early spontaneous preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 182: 1458-1467. (Pubitemid 30437417)
31. Romero R, Espinoza J, Erez O & Hassan S. The role of cervical cerclage in obstetric practice: can the patient who could benefit from this procedure be identified? Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 1-9.
32. Phelan JP, Park YW, Ahn MO & Rutherford SE. Polyhydramnios and perinatal outcome. J Perinatol 1990; 10: 347-350.
33. Ogge G, Romero R, Lee DC, Gotsch F, Nandor GT, Lee J et al. Chronic chorioamnionitis displays distinct alterations of the amniotic fluid proteome. J Pathol 2011; 223: 553-565.
34. Kim CJ, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Yoo W, Dong Z, Topping V et al. The frequency, clinical significance, and pathological features of chronic chorioamnionitis: a lesion associated with spontaneous preterm birth. Mod Pathol 2010; 23: 1000-1011.
35. Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Gomez R, Lamont R, Bytautiene E, Garfield RE et al. The clinical significance of eosinophils in the amniotic fluid in preterm labor. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2010; 23: 320-329.
36. Garfield RE, Bytautiene E, Vedernikov YP, Marshall JS & Romero R. Modulation of rat uterine contractility by mast cells and their mediators. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183: 118-125. (Pubitemid 30626037)
37. Bytautiene E, Romero R, Vedernikov YP, El Zeky F, Saade GR & Garfield RE. Induction of premature labor and delivery by allergic reaction and prevention by histamine H1 receptor antagonist. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004; 191: 1356-1361. (Pubitemid 39421596)
38. Csapo AI, Pohanka O & Kaihola HL. Progesterone deficiency and premature labour. Br Med J 1974; 1: 137-140.
39. Check JH, Lee G, Epstein R & Vetter B. Increased rate of preterm deliveries in untreated women with luteal phase deficiencies. Preliminary report. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1992; 33: 183-184.
40. Mazor M, Hershkovitz R, Chaim W, Levy J, Sharony Y, Leiberman JR et al. Human preterm birth is associated with systemic and local changes in progesterone/17 beta-estradiol ratios. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994; 171: 231-236. (Pubitemid 24254446)
41. Fidel Jr. PI, Romero R, Maymon E & Hertelendy F. Bacteria-induced or bacterial product-induced preterm parturition in mice and rabbits is preceded by a significant fall in serum progesterone concentrations. J Matern Fetal Med 1998; 7: 222-226.
42. Germain AM, Carvajal J, Sanchez M, Valenzuela GJ, Tsunekawa H & Chuaqui B. Preterm labor: placental pathology and clinical correlation. Obstet Gynecol 1999; 94: 284-289. (Pubitemid 29352878)
43. Kim YM, Bujold E, Chaiworapongsa T, Gomez R, Yoon BH, Thaler HT et al. Failure of physiologic transformation of the spiral arteries in patients with preterm labor and intact membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 189: 1063-1069. (Pubitemid 37373899)
44. Kim YM, Chaiworapongsa T, Gomez R, Bujold E, Yoon BH, Rotmensch S et al. Failure of physiologic transformation of the spiral arteries in the placental bed in preterm premature rupture of membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 1137-1142. (Pubitemid 35397446)
45. Combs CA, Katz MA, Kitzmiller JL & Brescia RJ. Experimental preeclampsia produced by chronic constriction of the lower aorta: validation with longitudinal blood pressure measurements in conscious rhesus monkeys. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 169: 215-223. (Pubitemid 23223968)
46. Arias F. Placental insufficiency: an important cause of preterm labor and preterm premature ruptured membranes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990. Ref Type: Abstract.
47. Vintzileos AM, Campbell WA, Nochimson DJ & Weinbaum PJ. Preterm premature rupture of the membranes: a risk factor for the development of abruptio placentae. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 156: 1235-1238. (Pubitemid 17075487)
48. Moretti M & Sibai BM. Maternal and perinatal outcome of expectant management of premature rupture of membranes in the midtrimester. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 390-396.
49. Major C, Nageotte M & Lewis D. Preterm premature rupture of membranes and placental abruption: is there an association between these pregnancy complications? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 164: 381.
50. Brar HS, Medearis AL, DeVore GR & Platt LD. Maternal and fetal blood flow velocity waveforms in patients with preterm labor: prediction of successful tocolysis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 947-950. (Pubitemid 18266630)
51. Brar HS, Medearis AL, De Vore GR & Platt LD. Maternal and fetal blood flow velocity waveforms in patients with preterm labor: relationship to outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 1519-1522. (Pubitemid 20024022)
52. Strigini FA, Lencioni G, De Luca G, Lombardo M, Bianchi F & Genazzani AR. Uterine artery velocimetry and spontaneous preterm delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1995; 85: 374-377.
53. Weiner CP, Sabbagha RE, Vaisrub N & Depp R. A hypothetical model suggesting suboptimal intrauterine growth in infants delivered preterm. Obstet Gynecol 1985; 65: 323-326. (Pubitemid 15134653)
54. MacGregor SN, Sabbagha RE, Tamura RK, Pielet BW & Feigenbaum SL. Differing fetal growth patterns in pregnancies complicated by preterm labor. Obstet Gynecol 1988; 72: 834-837.
55. Ott WJ. Intrauterine growth retardation and preterm delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1993; 168: 1710-1715.
56. Zeitlin J, Ancel PY, Saurel-Cubizolles MJ & Papiernik E. The relationship between intrauterine growth restriction and preterm delivery: an empirical approach using data from a European case-control study. BJOG 2000; 107: 750-758. (Pubitemid 30311911)
57. Bukowski R, Gahn D, Denning J & Saade G. Impairment of growth in fetuses destined to deliver preterm. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 185: 463-467. (Pubitemid 32769452)
58. Morken NH, Kallen K & Jacobsson B. Fetal growth and onset of delivery: a nationwide population-based study of preterm infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 195: 154-161. (Pubitemid 43927529)
59. Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R, Tarca A, Kusanovic JP, Mittal P, Kim SK et al. A subset of patients destined to develop spontaneous preterm labor has an abnormal angiogenic/anti-angiogenic profile in maternal plasma: evidence in support of pathophysiologic heterogeneity of preterm labor derived from a longitudinal study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 22: 1122-1139.
60. Poisner AM. The human placental renin-angiotensin system. Front Neuroendocrinol 1998; 19: 232-252. (Pubitemid 28347697)
61. Katz M, Shapiro WB, Porush JG, Chou SY & Israel V. Uterine and renal renin release after ligation of the uterine arteries in the pregnant rabbit. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 136: 676-678. (Pubitemid 10156233)
62. Woods LL & Brooks VL. Role of the renin-angiotensin system in hypertension during reduced uteroplacental perfusion pressure. Am J Physiol 1989; 257: R204-R209.
63. Lalanne C, Mironneau C, Mironneau J & Savineau JP. Contractions of rat uterine smooth muscle induced by acetylcholine and angiotensin II in Ca2+free medium. Br J Pharmacol 1984; 81: 317-326. (Pubitemid 14149409)
64. Campos GA, Guerra FA & Israel EJ. Angiotensin II induced release of prostaglandins from rat uterus. Arch Biol Med Exp (Santiago.) 1983; 16: 43-49.
65. Lockwood CJ, Krikun G, Papp C, Toth-Pal E, Markiewicz L, Wang EY et al. The role of progestationally regulated stromal cell tissue factor and type-1 plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI-1) in endometrial hemostasis and menstruation. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1994; 734: 57-79.
66. Elovitz MA, Saunders T, Ascher-Landsberg J & Phillippe M. Effects of thrombin on myometrial contractions in vitro and in vivo. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000; 183: 799-804.
67. Rosen T, Schatz F, Kuczynski E, Lam H, Koo AB & Lockwood CJ. Thrombin-enhanced matrix metalloproteinase-1 expression: a mechanism linking placental abruption with premature rupture of the membranes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2002; 11: 11-17.
68. Lockwood CJ, Krikun G, Aigner S & Schatz F. Effects of thrombin on steroid-modulated cultured endometrial stromal cell fibrinolytic potential. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996; 81: 107-112. (Pubitemid 26035010)
69. Lijnen HR. Matrix metalloproteinases and cellular fibrinolytic activity. Biochemistry (Mosc.) 2002; 67: 92-98.
70. Aplin JD, Campbell S & Allen TD. The extracellular matrix of human amniotic epithelium: ultrastructure, composition and deposition. J Cell Sci 1985; 79: 119-136. (Pubitemid 16187516)
71. Chaiworapongsa T, Espinoza J, Yoshimatsu J, Kim YM, Bujold E, Edwin S et al. Activation of coagulation system in preterm labor and preterm premature rupture of membranes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2002; 11: 368-373. (Pubitemid 34836886)
72. Erez O, Romer R, Vaisbuch E, Chaiworapongsa T, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S et al. Changes in amniotic fluid concentration of thrombin-antithrombin III complexes in patients with preterm labor: evidence of an increased thrombin generation. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 22: 971-982.
73. Rosen T, Kuczynski E, O'Neill LM, Funai EF & Lockwood CJ. Plasma levels of thrombin-antithrombin complexes predict preterm premature rupture of the fetal membranes. J Matern Fetal Med 2001; 10: 297-300.
74. Nagy S, Bush M, Stone J, Lapinski RH & Gardo S. Clinical significance of subchorionic and retroplacental hematomas detected in the first trimester of pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 102: 94-100. (Pubitemid 36792129)
75. Funderburk SJ, Guthrie D & Meldrum D. Outcome of pregnancies complicated by early vaginal bleeding. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1980; 87: 100-105. (Pubitemid 10156188)
76. Williams MA, Mittendorf R, Lieberman E & Monson RR. Adverse infant outcomes associated with first-trimester vaginal bleeding. Obstet Gynecol 1991; 78: 14-18.
77. Signore CC, Sood AK & Richards DS. Second-trimester vaginal bleeding: correlation of ultrasonographic findings with perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 178: 336-340. (Pubitemid 28124137)
78. Gomez R, Romero R, Nien JK, Medina L, Carstens M, Kim YM et al. Idiopathic vaginal bleeding during pregnancy as the only clinical manifestation of intrauterine infection. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2005; 18: 31-37. (Pubitemid 41224360)
79. Dommisse J & Tiltman AJ. Placental bed biopsies in placental abruption. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1992; 99: 651-654.
80. Brosens I, Robertson WB & Dixon HG. The physiological response of the vessels of the placental bed to normal pregnancy. J Pathol Bacteriol 1967; 93: 569-579.
81. Branch DW, Dudley DJ, Scott JR & Silver RM. Antiphospholipid antibodies and fetal loss. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 952-954.
82. Stone S, Hunt BJ, Seed PT, Parmar K, Khamashta MA & Poston L. Longitudinal evaluation of markers of endothelial cell dysfunction and hemostasis in treated antiphospholipid syndrome and in healthy pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003; 188: 454-460. (Pubitemid 36249985)
83. Abramowsky CR, Vegas ME, Swinehart G & Gyves MT. Decidual vasculopathy of the placenta in lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 1980; 303: 668-672. (Pubitemid 10053702)
84. De Wolf F, Carreras LO, Moerman P, Vermylen J, Van AA & Renaer M. Decidual vasculopathy and extensive placental infarction in a patient with repeated thromboembolic accidents, recurrent fetal loss, and a lupus anticoagulant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 142: 829-834. (Pubitemid 12142941)
85. Out HJ, Kooijman CD, Bruinse HW & Derksen RH. Histopathological findings in placentae from patients with intrauterine fetal death and anti-phospholipid antibodies. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1991; 41: 179-186.
86. Stone S, Pijnenborg R, Vercruysse L, Poston R, Khamashta MA, Hunt BJ et al. The placental bed in pregnancies complicated by primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Placenta 2006; 27: 457-467.
87. Girardi G, Berman J, Redecha P, Spruce L, Thurman JM, Kraus D et al. Complement C5a receptors and neutrophils mediate fetal injury in the antiphospholipid syndrome. J Clin Invest 2003; 112: 1644-1654. (Pubitemid 38063722)
88. Girardi G, Redecha P & Salmon JE. Heparin prevents antiphospholipid antibody-induced fetal loss by inhibiting complement activation. Nat Med 2004; 10: 1222-1226. (Pubitemid 39540439)
89. Sebire NJ, Fox H, Backos M, Rai R, Paterson C & Regan L. Defective endovascular trophoblast invasion in primary antiphospholipid antibody syndrome-associated early pregnancy failure. Hum Reprod 2002; 17: 1067-1071. (Pubitemid 34411147)
90. Ferrara N, Carver-Moore K, Chen H, Dowd M, Lu L, O'Shea KS et al. Heterozygous embryonic lethality induced by targeted inactivation of the VEGF gene. Nature 1996; 380: 439-442. (Pubitemid 26102720)
91. Andres RL, Kuyper W, Resnik R, Piacquadio KM & Benirschke K. The association of maternal floor infarction of the placenta with adverse perinatal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163: 935-938. (Pubitemid 20328764)
92. Katzman PJ & Genest DR. Maternal floor infarction and massive perivillous fibrin deposition: histological definitions, association with intrauterine fetal growth restriction, and risk of recurrence. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2002; 5: 159-164. (Pubitemid 34475448)
93. Robinson JS, Kingston EJ, Jones CT & Thorburn GD. Studies on experimental growth retardation in sheep. The effect of removal of a endometrial caruncles on fetal size and metabolism. J Dev Physiol 1979; 1: 379-398. (Pubitemid 10064332)
94. Robinson JS, Hart IC, Kingston EJ, Jones CT & Thorburn GD. Studies on the growth of the fetal sheep. The effects of reduction of placental size on hormone concentration in fetal plasma. J Dev Physiol 1980; 2: 239-248. (Pubitemid 11150681)
95. Falconer J, Owens JA, Allotta E & Robinson JS. Effect of restriction of placental growth on the concentrations of insulin, glucose and placental lactogen in the plasma of sheep. J Endocrinol 1985; 106: 7-11. (Pubitemid 15066131)
96. Romero R, Chaiworapongsa T, Erez O, Tarca AL, Gervasi MT, Kusanovic JP et al. An imbalance between angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors precedes fetal death in a subset of patients: results of a longitudinal study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2010; 23: 1384-1399.
97. Chaiworapongsa T, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Savasan ZA, Kim SK, Mazaki-Tovi S et al. Unexplained fetal death is associated with increased concentrations of anti-angiogenic factors in amniotic fluid. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2010; 23: 794-805.
98. Chaiworapongsa T, Kusanovic JP, Savasan ZA, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kim SK, Vaisbuch E et al. Fetal death: a condition with a dissociation in the concentrations of soluble vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-2 between the maternal and fetal compartments. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2010; 23: 960-972.
99. Boden G. Fuel metabolism in pregnancy and in gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1996; 23: 1-10. (Pubitemid 26084161)
100. Catalano PM, Kirwan JP, Haugel-de MS & King J. Gestational diabetes and insulin resistance: role in short- and long-term implications for mother and fetus. J Nutr 2003; 133: 1674S-1683S.
101. Reece EA. The fetal and maternal consequences of gestational diabetes mellitus. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2010; 23: 199-203.
102. Carpenter MW. Gestational diabetes, pregnancy hypertension, and late vascular disease. Diabetes Care 2007; 30(Suppl. 2): S246-S250. (Pubitemid 47036433)
103. Lauenborg J, Hansen T, Jensen DM, Vestergaard H, Molsted-Pedersen L, Hornnes P et al. Increasing incidence of diabetes after gestational diabetes: a long-term follow-up in a Danish population. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 1194-1199. (Pubitemid 38579789)
104. Garcia Carrapato MR. The offspring of gestational diabetes. J Perinat Med 2003; 31: 5-11.
105. Romero R. The child is the father of the man. Prenat Neonat Med 1996; 1: 8-11.
106. Romero R. Prenatal medicine: the child is the father of the man. 1996. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2009; 22: 636-639.
107. Gerretsen G, Huisjes HJ & Elema JD. Morphological changes of the spiral arteries in the placental bed in relation to preeclampsia and fetal growth retardation. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1981; 88: 876-881. (Pubitemid 11018178)
108. Khong TY, De Wolf F, Robertson WB & Brosens I. Inadequate maternal vascular response to placentation in pregnancies complicated by pre-eclampsia and by small-for-gestational age infants. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1986; 93: 1049-1059. (Pubitemid 16004866)
109. Frusca T, Morassi L, Pecorelli S, Grigolato P & Gastaldi A. Histological features of uteroplacental vessels in normal and hypertensive patients in relation to birthweight. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1989; 96: 835-839. (Pubitemid 19186640)
110. Meekins JW, Pijnenborg R, Hanssens M, McFadyen IR & van Asshe A. A study of placental bed spiral arteries and trophoblast invasion in normal and severe pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994; 101: 669-674. (Pubitemid 24251519)
111. Sagol S, Ozkinay E, Oztekin K & Ozdemir N. The comparison of uterine artery Doppler velocimetry with the histopathology of the placental bed. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1999; 39: 324-329. (Pubitemid 29431493)
112. Guzin K, Tomruk S, Tuncay YA, Naki M, Sezginsoy S, Zemheri E et al. The relation of increased uterine artery blood flow resistance and impaired trophoblast invasion in pre-eclamptic pregnancies. Arch Gynecol Obstet 2005; 272: 283-288.