Genomic Insights into the Past, Current and Future Evolution of Human Parasites of the Genus Plasmodium

Genetics and Evolution of Infectious Diseases

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 607-635

  Sutherland, Colin J ^a   Polley, Spencer D ^b  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^b HOSPITAL FOR TROPICAL DISEASES   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79955113218     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384890-1.00022-4     Document Type: Chapter

References (122)

1. Alloueche A., Milligan P., Conway D.J., Pinder M., Bojang K., Doherty T., et al. Protective efficacy of the RTS,S/AS02 Plasmodium falciparum malaria vaccine is not strain specific. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2003, 68:97-101.
2. Alonso P.L., Sacarlal J., Aponte J.J., Leach A., Macete E., Milman J., et al. Efficacy of the RTS,S/AS02A vaccine against Plasmodium falciparum infection and disease in young African children: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004, 364:1411-1420.
3. Amato A., Kooistra W.H., Ghiron J.H., Mann D.G., Proschold T., Montresor M. Reproductive isolation among sympatric cryptic species in marine diatoms. Protist 2007, 158:193-207.
4. Anderson T.J., Roper C. The origins and spread of antimalarial drug resistance: lessons for policy makers. Acta Trop. 2005, 94:269-280. Review.
5. Anthony T.G., Polley S.D., Vogler A.P., Conway D.J. Evidence of non-neutral polymorphism in Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface protein genes Pfs47 and Pfs48/45. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2007, 156:117-123.
6. Baum J., Thomas A.W., Conway D.J. Evidence for diversifying selection on erythrocyte-binding antigens of Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax. Genetics 2003, 163:1327-1336.
7. Baum J., Pinder M., Conway D.J. Erythrocyte invasion phenotypes of Plasmodium falciparum in The Gambia. Infect. Immun. 2003, 71:1856-1863.
8. Beshir K., Sutherland C.J., Merinopoulos I., Durrani N., Leslie T., Rowland M., et al. Amodiaquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria is associated with the pfcrt 72-76 SVMNT allele in Afghanistan. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2010, 54:3714-3716.
9. Bruce M.C., Macheso A., Galinski M.R., Barnwell J.W. Characterization and application of multiple genetic markers for Plasmodium malariae. Parasitology 2007, 134:637-650.
10. Bruce M.C., Macheso A., Kelly-Hope L.A., Nkhoma S., McConnachie A., Molyneux M.E. Effect of transmission setting and mixed species infections on clinical measures of malaria in Malawi. PLoS One 2008, 3:e2775.
11. Brunet M., Guy F., Pilbeam D., Mackaye H.T, Likius A., Ahounta D., et al. A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad Central Africa. Nature 2002, 418:145-151.
12. Carlton J.M., Adams J.H., Silva J.C., Bidwell S.L., Lorenzi H., Caler E., et al. Comparative genomics of the neglected human malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax. Nature 2008, 455:757-763.
13. Carlton J.M., Escalante A.A., Neafsey D., Volkman S.K. Comparative evolutionary genomics of human malaria parasites. Trends Parasitol. 2008, 24:545-550. Review.
14. Carter R. Studies on enzyme variation in the murine malaria parasites Plasmodium berghei, P. yoelii, P. vinckei and P. chabaudi by starch gel electrophoresis. Parasitology 1978, 76:241-267.
15. Casares S., Brumeanu T.-D., Ritchie T.L. The RTS,S malaria vaccine. Vaccine 2010, 28:4880-4894.
16. Coatney, G.R., Collins, W.E., Warren, M., Contacos, P.G., 2003. Division of Parasitic Disease, producers. Version 1.0. Atlanta, GA, USA: CDC; 2003. CD-ROM. The primate malarias [original book published 1971].
17. Coldren R.L., Jongsakul K., Vayakornvichit S., Noedl H., Fukuda M.M. Apparent relapse of imported Plasmodium ovale malaria in a pregnant woman. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77:992-994.
18. Collins W.E., Jeffery G.M. Plasmodium ovale: parasite and disease. Clin. Micro. Rev. 2005, 18:570-581.
19. Collins W.E., Jeffery G.M. Plasmodium malariae: parasite and disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2007, 20:579-592. Review.
20. Collins W.E., Pappaioanou M., McClure H.M., Swenson R.B., Strobert E., Skinner J.C., et al. Infection of chimpanzees with Nigerian I/CDC strain of Plasmodium ovale. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1987, 37:455-459.
21. Collins W.E., Sullivan J.S., Strobert E., Galland G.G., Williams A., Nace D., et al. Studies on the Salvador I strain of Plasmodium vivax in non-human primates and anopheline mosquitoes. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2009, 80:228-235.
22. Conway D.J., McBride J.S. Genetic evidence for the importance of interrupted feeding by mosquitoes in the transmission of malaria. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1991, 85:454-456.
23. Conway D.J., Polley S.D. Measuring immune selection. Parasitology 2002, 125(Suppl.):S3-S16.
24. Conway D.J., Machado R.L., Singh B., Dessert P., Mikes Z.S., Povoa M.M., et al. Extreme geographical fixation of variation in the Plasmodium falciparum gamete surface protein gene Pfs48/45 compared with microsatellite loci. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2001, 115:145-156.
25. Cox-Singh J., Davis T.M., Lee K.S., Shamsul S.S., Matusop A., Ratnam S., et al. Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans is widely distributed and potentially life threatening. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 46:165-171.
26. Cox-Singh J., Hiu J., Lucas S.B., Divia P.C., Zulkarnaen M., Chandran P., et al. Severe malaria-a case of fatal Plasmodium knowlesi infection with post-mortem findings: a case report. Malar. J. 2010, 9:10.
27. Cunningham D., Lawton J., Jarra W., Preiser P., Langhorne J. The pir multigene family of Plasmodium: antigenic variation and beyond. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2010, 170:65-73. Review.
28. Dame J.B., Arnot D.E., Bourke P.F., Chakrabarti D., Christodoulou Z., Coppel R.L., et al. Current status of the Plasmodium falciparum genome project. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 1996, 79:1-12.
29. Daubersies P., Sallenave-Salles S., Magne S., Trape J.-F., Contamin H., Fandeur T., et al. Rapid turnover of Plasmodium falciparum populations in asymptomatic individuals living in a high transmission area. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1996, 54:18-26.
30. Davis T.M., Singh B., Sheridan G. Parasitic procrastination: late-presenting ovale malaria and schistosomiasis. Med. J. Aust. 2001, 175:146-148.
31. Diallo D., Sutherland C., Nebié I., Konaté A., Ord R., Ilboudo-Sanogo E., et al. Sustained use of insecticide-treated curtains is not associated with greater circulation of drug-resistant malaria parasites, nor with higher risk of treatment failure among children with uncomplicated malaria in Burkina Faso. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 76:237-244.
32. Dlamini S.V., Beshir K., Sutherland C.J. Markers of anti-malarial drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum isolates from Swaziland: identification of pfmdr1-86F in natural parasite isolates. Malar. J. 2010, 9:68.
33. Dondorp A.M., Nosten F., Yi P., Das D., Phyo A.P., Tarning J., et al. Artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum malaria. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 361:455-467.
34. Drakeley C.J., Sutherland C.J., Bousema J.T., Sauerwein R.W., Targett G.A.T. The epidemiology of Plasmodium falciparum gametocytes: weapons of mass dispersion. Trends Parasitol 2006, 22:424-430.
35. Duraisingh M.T., Jones P., Sambou I., von Seidlein L., Pinder M., Warhurst D.C. The tyrosine-86 allele of the pfmdr1 gene of Plasmodium falciparum is associated with increased sensitivity to the anti-malarials mefloquine and artemisinin. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2000, 108:13-23.
36. Duraisingh M.T., Maier A.G., Triglia T., Cowman A.F. Erythrocyte-binding antigen 175 mediates invasion in Plasmodium falciparum utilizing sialic acid-dependent and -independent pathways. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2003, 100:4796-4801.
37. Duval L., Robert V., Csorba G., Hassanin A., Randrianarivelojosia M., Walston J., et al. Multiple host-switching of Haemosporidia parasites in bats. Malar. J. 2007, 6:157.
38. Duval L., Nerrienet E., Rousset D., Sadeuh Mba S.A., Houze S., Fourment M., et al. Chimpanzee malaria parasites related to Plasmodium ovale in Africa. PLoS One. 2009, 4:e5520.
39. Duval L., Fourment M., Nerrienet E., Rousset D., Sadeuh S.A., Goodman S.M., et al. African apes as reservoirs of Plasmodium falciparum and the origin and diversification of the Laverania subgenus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107:10561-10566.
40. Enosse S., Dobano C., Quelhas D., Aponte J.J., Lievens M., Leach A., et al. RTS,S/AS02A malaria vaccine does not induce parasite CSP T cell epitope selection and reduces multiplicity of infection. PLoS Clin. Trials 2006, 1:e5.
41. Escalante A.A., Ayala F.J. Phylogeny of the malarial genus Plasmodium, derived from rRNA gene sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1994, 91:11373-11377.
42. Escalante A.A., Smith D.L., Kim Y. The dynamics of mutations associated with anti-malarial drug resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Trends Parasitol. 2009, 25:557-563.
43. Faye F.B.K., Konate L., Rogier C., Trape J.-F. Plasmodium ovale in a highly malaria endemic area of Senegal. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1998, 92:522-525.
44. Flück C., Smith T., Beck H.-P., Irion A., Betuela I., Alpers M.P., et al. Strain-specific humoral response to a polymorphic malaria vaccine. Infect. Immun. 2004, 72:6300-6305.
45. Flück C., Schopflin S., Smith T., Genton B., Alpers M.P., Beck H.-P., et al. Effect of the malaria vaccine Combination B on merozoite surface antigen 2 diversity. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2007, 7:44-51.
46. Gardner M.J., Hall N., Fung E., White O., Berriman M., Hyman R.W., et al. Genome sequence of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 2002, 419:498-511.
47. Garnham P.C.C. Malaria Parasites and Other Haemosporidia 1966, Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
48. Geiman Q.M., Meagher M.J. Susceptibility of a new world monkey to Plasmodium falciparum from man. Nature 1967, 215:437-439.
49. Genton B., Betuela I., Felger I., Al-Yaman F., Anders R.F., Saul A., et al. A recombinant blood-stage malaria vaccine reduces Plasmodium falciparum density and exerts selective pressure on parasite populations in a phase 1-2b trial in Papua New Guinea. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 185:820-827.
50. Hacia J.G. Genome of the Apes. Trends Genet. 2001, 17:637-645.
51. Hall N., Karras M., Raine J.D., Carlton J.M., Kooij T.W., Berriman M., et al. A comprehensive survey of the Plasmodium life cycle by genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic analyses. Science 2005, 307:82-86.
52. Hayakawa T., Arisue N., Udono T., Hirai H., Sattabongkot J., Toyama T., et al. Identification of Plasmodium malariae, a human malaria parasite, in imported chimpanzees. PLoS One 2009, 4:e7412.
53. Humphreys G.A., Merinopoulos I., Ahmed J., Whitty C.J.M., Mutabingwa T.K., Sutherland C.J., et al. Amodiaquine and artemether-lumefantrine select distinct alleles of the Plasmodium falciparum pfmdr1 gene in Tanzanian children treated for uncomplicated malaria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2007, 51:991-997.
54. Hunt P., Afonso A., Creasey A., Culleton R., Sidhu A.B., Logan J., et al. Gene encoding a deubiquinating enzyme is mutated in artesunate- and chloroquine-resistant rodent malaria parasites. Mol. Microbiol. 2007, 65:27-40.
55. Iezhova T.A., Valkiunas G., Bairlein F. Vertebrate host specificity of two avian malaria parasites of the subgenus Novyella: Plasmodium nucleophilum and Plasmodium vaughani. J. Parasitol. 2005, 91:472-474.
56. Imwong M., Dondorp A.M., Nosten F., Yi P., Mungthin M., Hanchana S., et al. Exploring the contribution of candidate genes to artemisinin resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2010, 54:2886-2892.
57. Krief S., Escalante A.A., Pacheco M.A., Mugisha L., André C., et al. On the diversity of malaria parasites in African apes and the origin of Plasmodium falciparum from Bonobos. PLoS Pathog. 2010, 6(2):e1000765.
58. Lal A.A., Goldman I.F. Circumsporozoite protein gene from Plasmodium reichenowi a chimpanzee malaria parasite evolutionarily related to the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. J. Biol. Chem. 1991, 266:6686-6689.
59. Laufer M.K., Thesing P.C., Eddington N.D., Masonga R., Dzinjalamala F.K., Takala S.L., et al. Return of chloroquine antimalarial efficacy in Malawi. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 355:1959-1966.
60. Lee K.S., Cox-Singh J., Brooke G., Matusop A., Singh B. Plasmodium knowlesi from archival blood films: further evidence that human infections are widely distributed and not newly emergent in Malaysian Borneo. Int. J. Parasitol. 2009, 39:1125-1128.
61. Lekweiry K.M., Abdallahi M.O., Ba H., Arnathau C., Durand P., Trape J.F., et al. Preliminary study of malaria incidence in Nouakchott, Mauritania. Malar. J. 2009, 8:92.
62. Lindo J.F., Bryce J.H., Ducasse M.B., Howitt C., Barrett D.M., Morales J.L., et al. Plasmodium malariae in Haitian refugees, Jamaica. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2007, 13:931-933.
63. Liu W., Li Y., Learn G.H., Rudicell R.S., Robertson J.D., Keele B.F., et al. Origin of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum in gorillas. Nature. 2010, 467:420-425.
64. Luchavez J., Espino F., Curameng P., Espina R., Bell D., Chiodini P., et al. Human Infections with Plasmodium knowlesi, the Philippines. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14:811-813.
65. Mardis E.R. New strategies and emerging technologies for massively parallel sequencing: applications in medical research. Genome Med. 2009, 1:40.
66. Martin M.J., Rayner J.C., Gagneux P., Barnwell J.W., Varki A. Evolution of human-chimpanzee differences in malaria susceptibility: relationship to human genetic loss of N-glycolylneuraminic acid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005, 102:12819-12824.
67. Mayer D.C., Cofie J., Jiang L., Hartl D.L., Tracy E., Kabat J., et al. Glycophorin B is the erythrocyte receptor of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte-binding ligand EBL-1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2009, 106:5348-5352.
68. Mehlotra R.K., Mattera G., Bockarie M.J., Maguire J.D., Baird J.K., Sharma Y.D., et al. Discordant patterns of genetic variation at two chloroquine resistance loci in worldwide populations of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2008, 52:2212-2222.
69. Miller L.H. Hypothesis on the mechanism of erythrocyte invasion by malaria merozoites. Bull. World Health Organ. 1977, 55:157-162.
70. Mu J., Joy D.A., Duan J., Huang Y., Carlton J., Walker J., et al. Host switch leads to emergence of Plasmodium vivax malaria in humans. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2005, 22:1686-1693.
71. Mu J., Myers R.A., Jiang H., Liu S., Ricklefs S., Waisberg M., et al. Plasmodium falciparum genome-wide scans for positive selection, recombination hot spots and resistance to antimalarial drugs. Nat. Genet. 2010, 42:268-271.
72. Mueller I., Widmer S., Michel D., Maraga S., McNamara D.T., Kiniboro B., et al. High sensitivity detection of Plasmodium species reveals positive correlations between infections of different species, shifts in age distribution and reduced local variation in Papua New Guinea. Malar. J. 2009, 8:41.
73. Mueller I., Zimmerman P.A., Reeder J.C. Plasmodium malariae and Plasmodium ovale-the "bashful" malaria parasites. Trends Parasitol. 2007, 23:278-283.
74. Ng O.T., Ooi E.E., Lee C.C., Lee P.J., Ng L.C., Pei S.W., et al. Naturally acquired human Plasmodium knowlesi infection, Singapore. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2008, 14:814-816.
75. Noedl H., Se Y., Schaecher K., Smith B.L., Socheat D., Fukuda M.M., et al. Evidence of artemisinin-resistant malaria in western Cambodia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008, 359:2619-2620.
76. Ochola L.I., Tetteh K.K., Stewart L.B., Riitho V., Marsh K., Conway D.J. Allele frequency-based and polymorphism-versus-divergence indices of balancing selection in a new filtered set of polymorphic genes in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2010, 27:2344-2351.
77. Ord R., Polley S., Tami A., Sutherland C. High sequence diversity and evidence of balancing selection in the Pvmsp3α gene of Plasmodium vivax in the Venezuelan Amazon. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 2005, 144. 89-93.
78. Ord R., Alexander N., Dunyo S., Hallett R.L., Jawara M., Targett G.A.T., et al. Seasonal carriage of pfcrt and pfmdr1 alleles in Gambian Plasmodium falciparum imply reduced fitness of chloroquine-resistant parasites. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 196:1613-1619.
79. Ord R.L., Tami A., Sutherland C.J. ama1 genes of sympatric Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum from Venezuela differ significantly in genetic diversity and recombination frequency. PLoS One 2008, 3:e3366.
80. Osier F.H., Murungi L.M., Fegan G., Tuju J., Tetteh K.K., Bull P.C., et al. Allele-specific antibodies to Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein-2 and protection against clinical malaria. Parasite Immunol. 2010, 32:193-201.
81. Pain A., Böhme U., Berry A.E., Mungall K., Finn R.D., Jackson A.P., et al. The genome of the simian and human malaria parasite Plasmodium knowlesi. Nature 2008, 455:799-803.
82. Palumbi S.R., Metz E.C. Strong reproductive isolation between closely related tropical sea urchins (genus Echinometra). Mol. Biol. Evol. 1991, 8:227-239.
83. Perkins S.L., Schall J.J. A molecular phylogeny of malarial parasites recovered from cytochrome b gene sequences. J. Parasitol. 2002, 88:972-978.
84. Perkins S.L., Sarkar I.N., Carter R. The phylogeny of rodent malaria parasites: simultaneous analysis across three genomes. Infect. Genet. Evol. 2007, 7:74-83.
85. Polley S.D., Conway D.J. Strong diversifying selection on domains of the Plasmodium falciparum apical membrane antigen 1 gene. Genetics 2001, 158:1505-1512.
86. Polley S.D., Tetteh K.K., Lloyd J.M., Akpogheneta O.J., Greenwood B.M., Bojang K.A., et al. Plasmodium falciparum merozoite surface protein 3 is a target of allele-specific immunity and alleles are maintained by natural selection. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 195:279-287.
87. Price R.N., Uhlemann A.C., Brockman A., McGready R., Ashley E., Phaipun L., et al. Mefloquine resistance in Plasmodium falciparum and increased pfmdr1 gene copy number. Lancet 2004, 364:438-447.
88. Prugnolle F., Durand P., Neel C., Ollomo B., Ayala F.J., Arnathau C., et al. African great apes are natural hosts of multiple related malaria species, including Plasmodium falciparum. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107:1458-1463.
89. Putaporntip C., Hongsrimuang T., Seethamchai S., Kobasa T., Limkittikul K., Cui L., et al. Differential prevalence of Plasmodium infections and cryptic Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in humans in Thailand. J. Infect. Dis. 2009, 199:1143-1150.
90. Rathore D., Hrstka S.C., Sacci J.B., De La Vega P., Linhardt R.J., Kumar S., et al. Molecular mechanism of host specificity in Plasmodium falciparum infection: role of circumsporozoite protein. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278:40905-40910.
91. Rayner J.C., Corredor V., Feldman D., et al. Extensive polymorphism in the Plasmodium vivax merozoite surface coat protein MSP-3α is limited to specific domains. Parasitology 2002, 125:393-405.
92. Ricklefs R.E., Fallon S.M. Diversification and host switching in avian malaria parasites. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2002, 269:885-892.
93. Roper C., Pearce R., Nair S., Sharp B., Nosten F., Anderson T. Intercontinental spread of pyrimethamine-resistant malaria. Science 2004, 305:1124.
94. Sá J.M., Twu O., Hayton K., Reyes S., Fay M.P., Ringwald P., et al. Geographic patterns of Plasmodium falciparum drug resistance distinguished by differential responses to amodiaquine and chloroquine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2009, 106:18883-18889.
95. Sam-Yellowe T.Y., Florens L., Johnson J.R., Wang T., Drazba J.A., Le Roch K.G., et al. A Plasmodium gene family encoding Maurer's cleft membrane proteins: structural properties and expression profiling. Genome Res. 2004, 14:1052-1059.
96. Schuster F.L. Cultivation of Plasmodium spp. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2002, 15:355-364. Review.
97. Shortt H.E., Menon K.P., Seetharama Iyer P.V. The natural host of Plasmodium gallinaceum (Brumpt, 1935). J. Malar. Inst. India 1941, 4:175. (cited in Garnham, 1966).
98. Siddiqui W.A., Schnell J.V., Geiman Q.M. A model in vitro system to test the susceptibility of human malarial parasites to antimalarial drugs. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1972, 21:393-399.
99. Singh B., Kim Sung L., Matusop A., Radhakrishnan A., Shamsul S.S., Cox-Singh J., et al. A large focus of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infections in human beings. Lancet 2004, 363:1017-1024.
100. Snounou G., Zhu X., Siripoon N., Jarra W., Thaithong S., Brown K.N., et al. Biased distribution of msp1 and msp2 allelic variants in Plasmodium falciparum populations in Thailand. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1999, 93:1-6.
101. Sullivan J.S., Sullivan J.J., Williams A., Grady K.K., Bounngaseng A., Huber C.S., et al. Adaptation of a strain of Plasmodium falciparum from Ghana to Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, A. nancymai and A. vociferans monkeys. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2003, 69:593-600.
102. Sutherland C. A challenge for the development of malaria vaccines: polymorphic target antigens. PLoS Med. 2007, 4(3):e116.
103. Sutherland C.J., Drakeley C.J., Schellenberg D. How is childhood development of immunity to Plasmodium falciparum enhanced by certain antimalarial interventions?. Malar. J. 2007, 6:161.
104. Sutherland C.J., Tanomsing N., Nolder D., Oguike M., Jennison C., Pukrittayakamee S., et al. Two non-recombining sympatric forms of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium ovale occur globally. J. Infect. Dis. 2010, 201:1544-1550.
105. Suwanarusk R., Russell B., Chavchich M., Chalfein F., Kenangalem E. Chloroquine resistant Plasmodium vivax: in vitro characterisation and association with molecular polymorphisms. PLoS One 2007, 2:e1089.
106. Suwanarusk R., Chavchich M., Russell B., Jaidee A., Chalfein F., Barends M., et al. Amplification of pvmdr1 associated with multidrug-resistant Plasmodium vivax. J. Infect. Dis. 2008, 198:1558-1564.
107. Takala S.L., Coulibaly D., Thera M.A., Dicko A., Smith D.L., Guindo A.B., et al. Dynamics of polymorphism in a malaria vaccine antigen at a vaccine-testing site in Mali. PLoS Med. 2007, 4:e93.
108. Tetteh K.K., Stewart L.B., Ochola L.I., Amambua-Ngwa A., Thomas A.W., Marsh K., et al. Prospective identification of malaria parasite genes under balancing selection. PLoS One 2009, 4:e5568.
109. Trager W., Jensen J.B. Human malaria parasites in continuous culture. Science 1976, 193:673-675.
110. Tsuchida H., Yamaguchi K., Yamamoto S., Ebisawa I. Quartan malaria following splenectomy 36 years after infection. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1982, 31:163-165.
111. Van den Eede P., Van H.N., Van Overmeir C., Vythilingam I., Duc T.N., Hung le X., et al. Human Plasmodium knowlesi infections in young children in central Vietnam. Malar. J. 2009, 8:249.
112. Van Dijk M.R., Janse C.J., Thompson J., Waters A.P., Braks J.A., Dodemont H.J., et al. A central role for P48/45 in malaria parasite male gamete fertility. Cell 2001, 104:153-164.
113. Volkman S.K., Sabeti P.C., DeCaprio D., Neafsey D.E., Schaffner S.F., Milner D.A., et al. A genome-wide map of diversity in Plasmodium falciparum. Nat. Genet. 2007, 39:113-119.
114. Waitumbi J.N., Anyona S.B., Hunja C.W., Kifude C.M., Polhemus M.E., Walsh D.S., et al. Impact of RTS,S/AS02(A) and RTS,S/AS01(B) on genotypes of P. falciparum in adults participating in a malaria vaccine clinical trial. PLoS One 2009, 4:e7849.
115. Wang H.Y., Tang H., Shen C.K., Wu C.I. Rapidly evolving genes in human. I. The glycophorins and their possible role in evading malaria parasites. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2003, 20:1795-1804.
116. Weatherall D.J., Miller L.H., Baruch D.I., Marsh K., Doumbo O.K., Casals-Pascual C., et al. Malaria and the red cell. Hematology Am. Soc. Hematol. Educ. Program 2002, 2002:35-57. Review.
117. Weedall G.D., Preston B.M., Thomas A.W., Sutherland C.J., Conway D.J. Differential evidence of natural selection on two leading sporozoite stage malaria vaccine candidate antigens. Int. J. Parasitol. 2007, 37:77-85.
118. White N.J. Plasmodium knowlesi: the fifth human malaria parasite. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 46:172-173.
119. Wickham J.M., Dennis E.D., Mitchell G.H. Long term cultivation of a simian malaria parasite (Plasmodium knowlesi) in a semi-automated apparatus. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1980, 74:789-792.
120. Winter G., Kawai S., Haeggström M., Kaneko O., von Euler A., Kawazu S., et al. SURFIN is a polymorphic antigen expressed on Plasmodium falciparum merozoites and infected erythrocytes. J. Exp. Med. 2005, 201:1853-1863.
121. Wootton J.C., Feng X., Ferdig M.T., Cooper R.A., Mu J., Baruch D.I., et al. Genetic diversity and chloroquine selective sweeps in Plasmodium falciparum. Nature 2002, 418:320-323.
122. Zheng H., Zhu H.M., Ning B.F., Li X.Y. [Molecular identification of naturally acquired Plasmodium knowlesi infection in a human case.]. Zhongguo Ji Sheng Chong Xue Yu Ji Sheng Chong Bing Za Zhi 2006, 24:273-276. (in Chinese).