The right to migrate as a human right: The current argentine immigration law

Cornell International Law Journal

Volumn 43, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 471-511

  Hines, Barbara ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS   (United States)

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EID: 79954995823     PISSN: 00108812     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (437)

1. The National Congress passed the law on December 4, 2003, the Senate on December 17, 2003, and it was formally published in the Boletín Oficial on January 21 2004. Law No. 25.871, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 1;
2. Rubén Giustiniani, Fundamentos de la Ley, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO 19, 35-36 (Prometeo 2004).
3. Jorge Viděla was the head of the military junta in Argentina from 1976 until 1981.
4. Law No. 25.871, art. 124, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2 (repealing Law No 22.439, Mar. 23, 1981, [1981-A] L.A. 273).
5. CONST. ARG. art. 23, para. 22 (1994).
6. See Law No. 25.871, art. 124, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2 (repealing Law No. 22.439, which was enacted in 1981).
7. See, e.g., 8 U.S.C. §1101(0 (2006);
8. Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 149 U.S. 698, 707 (1893) ("The right of a nation to expel or deport foreigners who have not been naturalized, or taken any steps towards becoming citizens of the country, rests upon the same grounds, and is as absolute and unqualified, as the right to prohibit and prevent their entrance into the country.");
9. see generally European Comm'n, Towards a Common European Union Immigration Policy (Sept. 2007), http://ec.europa.eu/justice-home/ fsj/immigration/fsj-immigration-intro-en.htm (describing EU management of illegal immigration, asylum, and migration and border controls under the Tampere program);
10. see also Migration Act, 1958, §4(1)-(2) (Austl.) (stating that "Parliament intends that this Act be the only source of the right of non-citizens to so enter or remain");
11. Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, 2001 S.C., ch. 27 (Can.);
12. Immigration Act, 1987, pt. 1 (N.Z.) (outlining requirements for exemptions, visas, and permits);
13. Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act, Cabinet Order 319 of 1951, art.1, (Japan) (stating that the Act's purpose is to provide control over the entrance into and departure from Japan).
14. See International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, G.A. Res. 45/158, U.N. GAOR, 45th Sess., Supp. No. 49A, U.N. Doc. A/45/49 (1990) (entered into force July 1, 2003). The European Convention of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights only guarantee the freedom of movement to those lawfully within the country, although these instruments recognize the right to leave and reenter one's own country. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 12, Dec. 16, 1966, S. EXEC. DOC E, 95-2 (1978), 999 U.N.T.S. 171; European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Protocol 4, art. 2, Nov. 4, 1950, Europ. T.S. No. 5. The American Convention on Human Rights recognizes not only these rights but also the right to seek asylum in a third country. Organization of American States, American Convention on Human Rights, pt. I, ch. 2, art. 22, Nov. 22, 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123.
15. Law No. 25.871, art. 6, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
16. See infra Postscript, discussing regulations that the government promulgated during the editing of this article.
17. See Karen Engle, Comparative Law as Exposing the Foreign System's Internal Critique: An Introduction, 1997 UTAH L. REV. 359, 366-68 (1997) (discussing the use of comparative law to critique one's own system).
18. Juan Bautista Alberdi, Bases y Puntos de Partida Para la Organizacion Politicas de la Republica Argentina, in 3 OBRAS COMPLETAS DE JUAN BAUTISTA ALBERDI 371, 527 (Buenos Aires, La Tribuna Nacional 1886);
19. DAVID ROCK, ARGENTINA 1516-1987: FROM SPANISH COLONIZATION TO ALFONSIN 114 (Univ. of Cal. Press 1987) (1985);
20. see also Corte Suprema de Justicia [CSJN], 23/06/09, "Ni, I-Hsing s/Carta de ciudadanía (recurso extraordinario)," at 20-21 available at http://www.csjn.gov.ar/cfal/fallos/cfa13/consfallos.jsp (search by party name) (Arg.) (discussing the historical and constitutional bases for the promotion of immigration).
21. See FELIX LUNA, A BRIEF HISTORY OF ARGENTINA 116-19, 136-39 (Judith Ravin trans., Planeta 1995);
22. see also ROCK, supra note 11, at 114-15, 131-33, 141-43.
23. Raúl C. Rey Balmaceda, El Pasado: la Immigración en la Historia Argentina, in 2 GEODOMOS 19, 44 (Graciela M. de Marco, et al. eds., 1994);
24. see also Barbara Hines, An Overview of Argentine Immigration Law, 9 IND. INT'L. & COMP. L. REV. 395, 397 (1999).
25. Balmaceda, supra note 13, at 44;
26. Hines, supra note 13, at 397.
27. Hines, supra note 13, at 397-98.
28. See Enrique Oteiza et al., Política Migratoria: Inmigración Real y Derechos Humanos en la Argentina, in INFORME ANUAL SOBRE LA SITUACIÓN DE LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS EN LA ARGENTINA 87 (Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales 1996);
29. see also Maia Jachimowicz, Argentina: A New Era of Migration and Migration Policy, MIGRATION INFO. SOURCE, Feb. 2006, http://www. migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=374;
30. Susana Novick, Univ. of Buenos Aires, Evolución Reciente de la Política Migratoria Argentina at 5, Paper Presented at 25th Int'l Population Conference, Tours, France (July 18-23, 2005), available at http://www.iigg.fsoc.uba.ar/pobmigra/archivos/iussp.pdf;
31. INDEC, Población Extranjera Empadronada en el País por Lugar de Nacimiento Según Sexo y Grupos de Edad (2001), http://www.indec.gov.ar/nuevaweb/cuadros/2/migracion1.xls;
32. Organización Internacional para las Migraciones, Perfil Migratorio de Argentina, at 12, (Nov. 2008), available at http://www.oimconosur.org/ archivos/descarga.php ?id=. ./imagenes/archivos/144.pdf&name=Argentina%20- %20Perfil%20Migratorio%20 de%201a%20Argentina;
33. Special Migration Agreement Arg.-Ukr., Oct. 24, 2001, Law No. 25.496, Nov. 19, 2001, [29787] B.O. 1.
34. Jachimowicz, supra note 16;
35. see also INDEC, supra note 16.
36. See, e.g.. Special Migration Agreement Arg.-Ukr., Oct. 24, 2001, Law No. 25.496, Nov. 19, 2001, [29787] B.O. 1 (bilateral agreement).
37. Violeta A. Correa, La Nueva Ley de Migraciones y la Participacion de las Organizaciones de la Sociedad Civil, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO, supra note 1, at 173-74.
38. See Dr. P. Ruben Mercado, The Argentine Recovery: Some Features and Challenges 1-2 (The Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies (LLILAS), University of Texas, VRP Working Paper, 2007), available at http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/ etext/Uilas/vrp/mercado2.pdf.
39. I use the term "irregular status" and "irregular migrant" to describe persons who enter a country without proper documents, or who enter with a proper visa but fail to comply with the conditions of the visa or remain beyond their authorized stay. A large portion of the irregular population obtained legal status in the last several years. See discussion infra of Mercosur and non-Mercosur legalization programs.
40. See, e.g., Sebastian Bruno, VII Jornadas de Sociologia: Cifras Imaginarias de la Población Limitrofe en la Argentina (Nov. 2007), available at http://iigg.fsoc.uba.ar/ pobmigra/archivos/bruno-cimaginarias.pdf;
41. see also Perfil Migratorio de Argentina, supra note 16, at 21. The websites of INDEC (Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Censos para la Republica), http://www.indec.mecon.ar/ (last visited May 15, 2010), and the Direccion de Migraciones, http://www.migraciones.gov.ar/ (last visited May 15, 2010), do not include statistics regarding irregular immigrants.
42. Gabriel Chausovsky, Análisis de Ia Jurisprudencia a Partir de la Nueva Ley de Migraciones, Seminario Permanente de Migraciones, Instituto Gino Germani, Buenos Aires JuIy 2008) (citing to statement on http://www. patriagrande.gov.ar/ that is no longer available on website) (on file with author);
43. see also Oteiza, supra note 16, at 103-05;
44. see also Letter from Pablo Bruni, Gustavo Dalmiro Roca & Kuo Wei Sui Lee, attorneys, on behalf of Embassy of China, to Dr. Eusebio Rodriguez, National Director of Immigration (March 2004) [hereinafter Chinese Embassy letter] (on file with author).
45. See discussion, infra, for more detail on the Ley Videla.
46. See, e.g., Chinese Embassy letter, supra note 23. ("[D]ue to bureaucratic hurdles or the absence of available norms, there are a considerable number of illegal residents from [China].").
47. Chausovsky supra note 23, at 1.
48. See Bruno, supra note 22;
49. see also discussion infra of Mercosur and nonMercosur regularization programs.
50. See Mitchell Gordon, Don't Copy Me, Argentina: Constitutional Borrowing and Rhetorical Type, 8 WASH. U. GLOBAL STUD. L. REV. 487, 500-02 (2009).
51. CONST. ARG. art. 25 (1853);
52. CONST. ARG. art. 25 (1994), reprinted and translated in 1 CONSTITUTIONS OF THE COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD
53. [hereinafter CONSTITUTIONS OF THE WORLD] (Gisbert H. Flanz ed., Marcia W. Coward trans., Oceana Publications, Inc. 1995). Although U.S. law does not explicitly state a preference for European immigrants, numerous immigration statutes have excluded non-Europeans.
54. See, e.g., Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, ch. 126, 22 Stat. 58 (1882) (repealed 1943);
55. Immigration Act of 1917, ch. 29, §3, 39 Stat. 874 (1924) (repealed 1952);
56. Act of May 19, 1921, ch. 8, § 2(a), 42 Stat. 5 (repealed 1952);
57. Immigration Act of 1924, ch. 190,43 Stat. 153 (1924) (repealed 1952) (instituting numerical limitations based on national origin to benefit northern Europeans). Some scholars of U.S. immigration history sustain that the current anti-immigrant movement in the United States is a reaction against Mexican and other non-European immigration.
58. See BILL ONG HING, DEFINING AMERICA THROUGH IMMIGRATION POLICY 134-54 (Temple Univ. Press 2004);
59. see generally MAE M. NGAI, IMPOSSIBLE SUBJECTS (Princeton Univ. Press 2004) (analyzing the history of non-European immigration in the United States).
60. "The Federal Government shall encourage European immigration, and it may not restrict, limit, or burden with any tax whatsoever the entry into Argentine territory of foreigners whose purpose is tilling the soil, improving industries, and introducing and teaching the sciences and die arts." CONST. ARG. art. 25;
61. see also OFELIA I. STAHRINGER DE CRAMUTI, LA POLÍTICA MIGRATORIA ARGENTINA 36 (Depalma 1975).
62. CONST. ARG. pmbl. (1994).
63. "All inhabitants of the Nation enjoy the following rights, in accordance with the laws that regulate their exercise, namely: of working in and practicing any lawful industry; of navigating and trading; of petitioning the audiorities; of entering, remaining in, traveling through and leaving the Argentine territory; of publishing their ideas through the press without prior censorship; of using and disposing of their property; of associating for useful purposes; of freely practicing their religion; of teaching and learning.
64. CONST. ARG. art. 14 (1994) (reprinted and translated in CONSTITUTIONS OF THE WORLD, supra note 28).
65. The constitution of 1853 contained the same article. Corte Suprema de Justicia [CSJN], 1928, "Maciá y Gassol," Colección Oficial de Fallos de la Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación [Fallos] (1928-151-211) (Arg.);
66. CSJN, 23/3/1956, "Sosa, Lino," Fallos (1956-234-203) (Arg.). Although this article does not address naturalization under Argentine law, the Supreme Court, relying on constitutional provisions, recently held that a person who had resided in the country in irregular status met the two- year residence requirement for naturalization.
67. See "Ni, 1-Hsing s/ Carta de ciudadanía (recurso extraordinario)," supra note 11, at 30.
68. "Foreigners enjoy in the territory of the Nation all the civil rights of a citizen; they may engage in their industry, trade or profession, own, purchase or transfer real property, navigate the rivers and coasts, freely practice their religion, [and] make wills and marry in accordance with the laws." CONST. ARG. art. 20 (1994),
69. CONST. ARG. art. 20 (1853) (reprinted and translated in CONSTITUTIONS OF THE WORLD, supra note 28).
70. CONST. ARG. art. 20 (1994).
71. See, e.g., CSJN, 1928 "Maciá y Gassol," Fallos (1928-151-211) (Arg.);
72. CSJN 23/3/ 1956 "Sosa, Lino," Fallos (1956-234-203) (Arg.);
73. CSJN, 28/9/1979, "Carrizo Coito, Sergio," Fallos (1980-302-604) (Arg.).
74. CSJN, 8/11/1988, "Repetto c/ Provincia de Buenos Aires," Fallos (1988-3112272) (Arg.) (private school teacher);
75. CSJN, 24/2/1998, "Calvo y Pesini, Rocio c/ Córdoba Provincia s/ amparo," Fallos (1998-321-194) (Arg.) (public hospital employee).
76. See Hines, supra note 13, at 413-16, for discussion of prior Argentine immigration caselaw.
77. For example, in the United States, under the strict scrutiny test, a law must be narrowly tailored to meet a compelling state interest. Pleasant Grove City v. Summum, 129 S. Ct. 1125, 1132(2009).
78. CSJN, 16/11/2004, "Hooft, Pedro C. F. v. Provincia de Buenos Aires / acción declarativa de inconstitucionalidad" Jurisprudencia Argentina [JA] (2005-IV-516) (Arg.) (requirement of citizenship for judges);
79. CSJN, 8/8/2006, "Gottschau, Evelyn Patrizia c/ Consejo de la Magistratura de la Ciudad Autonoma de Buenos Aires s/ amparo,"
80. J.A. (2006-IV-596) (Arg.) (requirement of citizenship for judicial clerk position);
81. CSJN, 4/9/2007, "Reyes Aguilera, Daniela v. Estado Nacional," S.J.A. 7/11/2007 (Arg.) (requirement of 20 years residence in order for a non-citizen to receive government disability payments).
82. See Gordon, supra note 27, at 500-02.
83. Mathews v. Diaz, 426 U.S. 67, 79-80 (1976).
84. Oceanic Steam Navigation Co. v. Stranahan, 214 U.S. 320, 339 (1909).
85. Fong Yue Ting v. U.S., 149 U.S. 698, 707 (1893).
86. Diaz, 426 U.S. at 79-80;
87. Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 305-306 (1993);
88. Demore v. Kim, 538 U.S. 510, 521-523 (2003).
89. Diaz, 426 U.S. at 80.
90. Sudomir v. McMahon, 767 F.2d 1456, 1464 (9th Cir. 1985) (citing Diaz, 426 U.S. at 83).
91. Espinoza v. Farah Mfg. Co., 414 U.S. 86, 95 (1973).
92. United States ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy, 338 U.S. 537, 544 (1950) ("Whatever the procedure authorized by Congress is, it is due process as far as an alien denied entry is concerned.");
93. see Diaz, 426 U.S. at 79-80.
94. Compare Ambach v. Norwick, 441 U.S. 68, 74, 80-81 (1979) (upholding N.Y. state law that requires that all teachers be U.S. citizens),
95. and Foley v. Connelie, 435 U.S. 291 299-300 (1978) (upholding N.Y. state law that requires state troopers to be U.S. citizens),
96. with CONST. ARG. ARTS. 20, 25 (protecting a non-citizen's right to employment), CSJN, 8/11/1988 "Ines Maria Repetto v. Provincia de Buenos Aires, Fallos (1908-3112272) (Arg.),
97. and CSJN, 24/2/1998, "Calvo y Pesini, Rocío c/ Córdoba Provincia s/ amparo," Fallos (1998-321-194) (Arg.).
98. Diaz, 426 U.S. at 79-80.
99. Tuan Anh Nguyen v. I.N.S., 533 U.S. 53, 70 (2001) (holding that the government may place more restrictive requirements on a father, as opposed to a mother in order to transmit citizenship to a child born out of wedlock);
100. Fiallo v. Bell, 430 US. 787 798-99 (1977) (holding that disparate treatment of immigration benefits for lathers ana mothers of children born out of wedlock was constitutional).
101. 8 U S C §§1226(c), 1227 (2008) (providing grounds for deportation);
102. Demore v Kim 538 U.S. 510, 531 (2003).
103. See generally Stephen H. Legomsky, The New Path of Immigration Law: Asymmetric Incorporation of Criminal Justice Norms, 64 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 469 (2007) (discussing the minimal due process safeguards that the law provides for immigrants).
104. Tribunal Oral en lo Criminal Federal Nro. 1 de Córdoba (TOralCrimFedCórdoba)'(Nro1), 04/04/2007, "Jalil, Gabriel E. y Otros," La Ley [L.L.] (2007-D-84) (Arg.).
105. See Balmaceda, supra note 13;
106. supra text accompanying notes 27-37.
107. Corina Courtis & Maria Inés Pacecca, Síntesis de las Migraciones En La Argentina Contemporanea, CAPACITACIÓN EN ZONAS DE FRONTERA Y CONTROL MIGRATORIO (CELS ACNUR) (2004), at 1;
108. see Novick, supra note 16, at 5.
109. Law No 4144 Nov 23 1902 [1889 1919J A.D LA 560 560 Durmg the same period the United States passed similar laws See Immigration Act of 1918 Pub L No 221-186 §§1-3 40 Stat 1012 (1918) (amended by the lmmlgration Act of 1920 Pub. L. No 262-251 41 Stat 1008 (1920)) (providing for the exclusion of anyone who advocated the overthrow of the government by force, who opposed organized government or who was a member of any organization teaching these views).
110. Law No. 4144, Nov. 23, 1902, [1889-1919], A.D.L.A. 560, 560.
111. CSJN, 6/5/1932, "Simón Scheimberg y Enrique Corona Martinez s/ habeas corpus en representación de treinta y tres extranjeros detenidos en el 'Transporte Chacode la Armada Nacional," Fallos (1932-164-344) (Arg.).
112. Id.
113. see also supra note 29 (text of CONST. ARG. art 25)
114. See CSJN, 6/5/1932, "Simón Scheimberg y Enrique Corona Martinez s/ habeas corpus en representación de treinta y tres extranjeros detenidos en el 'Transporte Chaco' de la Armada Nacional," Fallos (1932-164-344) (Arg.).;
115. see also.supra note 31 (text of CONST. ARG. art. 14)
116. Law No. 22.439, Mar. 23, 1981, [1981-A] L.A. 273 (repealed).
117. See Decree No 4805 1963 [1963] A.L.J.A 66 ratified by Law No 16 478 1964 [1964] A.L.J.A. 52;
118. see also Decree No. 17294, 1967, [1967-B] A.L.J.A 1516
119. See Alicia Carmona, Independent Scholar, N.Y. Univ., Presentation at the 2009 Congress of Latin American Studies, La Morenada: Culture and Status in the Bolivian Collectivity of Buenos Aires (2009).
120. Enrique I. Groisman, Los Gobiernos de Facto en el Derecho Argentino, 4 REVISTA DEL CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS CONSTITUCIONALES 35, 43-44 (1989).
121. See generally Hines, supra note 13 (providing a detailed analysis of Law No. 22.439).
122. Law No. 22.439, art. 2, Mar. 23,1981 [1981-A] L.A 273 (repealed).
123. See Giustiniani, supra note 1, at 34-35 (providing extensive criticism of the former law and highlighting its discriminatory and repressive nature).
124. Law. No. 22.439, art. 3, Mar. 23, 1981 [1981-A] L.A. 273 (repealed) (discussing die authority to remove immigrants for not following the law).
125. Law. No. 22.439, art. 78, Mar. 23, 1981 [1981-A] L.A 273 (repealed).
126. See CSJN, 6/5/1932, "Simón Scheimberg y Enrique Corona Martinez s/ habeas corpus en representación de treinta y tres extranjeros detenidos en el 'Transporte Chaco' de la Armada Nacional," Fallos (1932-164-344) (Arg.);
127. Gabriel Chausovsky, El Estado y la Expulsión de Extranjeros, REVISTA DE CIENCIAS JURIDICAS Y SOCIALES, EDITADA POR LA FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS JURÍDICAS Y SOCIALES DE LA UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DEL LITORAL, 1997, at 169.
128. Law No. 22.439, art. 102, Mar. 23, 1981 [1981-A] L.A. 273 (repealed).
129. Law No. 24.393, art. 48, Nov. 18, 1994 [1994-C] L.A. 3228 (modifying Law No. 22.439, art. 48, Mar. 23 1981 [1981-A] L.A 273);
130. Law. No. 22.439, arts. 32,48, Mar. 23, 1981 [1981-A] L.A. 273 (repealed).
131. Law No. 22.439, arts. 32, 35, Mar. 23, 1981, [1981-A], L.A. 273 (repealed) (discussing the related sale and acquisition of real estate);
132. id. art.105 (referring to notaries who prepare commercial documents);
133. id. art. 101 (discussing the officials who perform marriage ceremonies);
134. id. art. 103 (noting facilities that provide medical care);
135. id. art. 104, 106 (referring to all municipal, provincial and federal agencies and employees).
136. Id. art. 107.
137. Law No.21.258 Mar. 24, 1976, [XXXVI-B] A.D.L.A 1032;
138. William C. Banks & Alejandro D.Carrio, Presidential systems in Stress: Emergency Powers in Argentina and the United States, 15 MICH. J. INT'L L. 1, 30-31 (1993).
139. The author initially spent six months in 1996 in Argentina on a Fulbright Grant at the Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales (CELS) working on immigration issues. She has frequently returned to Argentina and has continued extensive collaboration with CELS and the Comisión Argentina de Refugiados (CAREF) since that time. The author also helped to establish the first immigration clinic in Argentina, sponsored by CELS CAREF and the Universidad de Buenos Ares, and participated in strategy discussions regarding reform of the immigration law. The University of Texas School of Law immigration clinic filed an amicus brief at the IACHR in the De la Torre cast discussed herein Much of this section is based on the author's professional experience and continued research and collaboration on immigration law in Argentina.
140. Janet Koven Levit, The Constitutionalization of Human Rights in Argentina: Problem or Promise?, 37 COLOM. J. TRANSNAT'L LAW 281, 288-91 (1999)
141. Id. at 291.
142. CONST. ARG. art. 75, ¶ 22.
143. See, e.g., LA APLICACIÓN DE LOS TRATADOS SOBRE DERECHOS HUMANOS POR LOS TRIBUNALES LOCALES (Martin Abregú & Christian Courtis eds., Editores del Puerto 1997) (discussing the application of treaties on human rights by local courts).
144. See Correa, supra note 19, at 173;
145. see also Giustiniani, supra note 1, at 13;
146. Hines, supra note 13, at 417-21.
147. See Victor Piché & Diego Morales, Immigration Policy in Argentina: Between Theory and Practice, MCGILL: HANS & TAMAR OPPENHEIMER CHAIR IN PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW, Mar. 8, 2010, http://oppenheimer.mcgill.ca/ Politiques-migratoires-en.
148. See generally ENRIQUE OTEIZA, SUSANA NOVICK & ROBERTO S. ARUJ, POLÍTICA MIGRATORIA, IMMIGRACION REAL, Y DERECHOS HUMANOS EN LA ARGENTINA, INFORME ANNUAL SOBRE LA SITUACION DE LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS EN LA ARGENTINA, 147, 147-181 (Centro de Estudies Legales y Sociales 1996) (noting the emergence of an immigrants' rights discussion in the public arena).
149. See Correa, supra note 19, at 173-77.
150. CSJN, 22/12/1998, "Recurso de hecho deducido por la defensa de De la Torre, Juan Carlos en la causa De la Torre, Juan Carlos s/ habeas corpus," Fallos (1998-3213646) (Ag.).
151. Id.
152. De La Torre v. Argentino, Case 12.306, Inter-Am. C.H.R.
153. See International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, supra note 7. The University of Texas School of Law Immigration Clinic filed an amicus brief at the IACHR in the De la Torre case, see supra note 72.
154. Interview with Pablo Ceriani, Former Attorney, CELS and Professor, Universidad de Lanus, in Sevilla, Spain (Jul. 19, 2006).
155. See Diego Morales & Verónica Asurey, La Nueva Ley de Migraciones y Las Cuestiones de Derecho Penal y Procesal. Una Bienvenida Sin Sombrero, 2004/A NUEVA DOCTRINA PENAL 259, 263 (2004);
156. Letter to Consejo Permanente de la Organización de los Estados Americanos, Comisión de Asuntos Jurídicos y Políticos (Sept. 27, 2004) (on file with author).
157. See, e.g., KATIE FLEET, CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS LEGALES Y SOCIALES: INFORME ANNUAL SOBRE, SITUACION DE LOS IMMIGRANTES Y DERECHOS HUMANOS, 261, 261-87 (1997);
158. see also Chausovsky, supra note 66, at 169.
159. See SUSANA NOVICK, LAS MIGRACIONES EN AMÉRICA LATINA (Catálogos S.R.L. Av. Independencia 1860, 1225 - Buenos Aires - Argentina 2008).
160. Correa, supra note 19, at 173.
161. Id.
162. see also Lic. Alejandro Giusti, Audiencia Pública y Seminario Sobre Política y Legislación Migratoria en la República Argentina, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO, supra note 1, at 269;
163. Giustiniani, supra note 1, at 15, 35-36;
164. Nora Perez Vichich, Los Trabajadores Migrantes en la Nueva Ley de Migraciones: De Objeto de Normas a Sujetos de Derecho, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO, supra note 1, at 137-38.
165. See generally Giustiniani, supra note 1 (compiling both sections of the new law, and essays of scholars, discussing the law).
166. Id. at 14-15.
167. Eugenio Raúl Zaffaroni, Migración y Discriminación: La Nueva Ley en Perspectiva Histórica, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO, supra note 1, at 45.
168. Susana Novick, Una Nueva Ley para un Nuevo Modelo de Desarrollo en un Contexto de Crisis y Consenso, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO, supra note 1, at 67, 84-85 (author's translation).
169. Ambassador Leonardo Franco, Vice-Minister for Latin American Policy of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship of the Argentine Republic, Statement to the U.N. General Assembly on Argentina, High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development (Sep. 15, 2006), available at http://www.un.org/webcast/migration/pdfs/argentina-e.pdf.
170. See, e.g., Pro immigrant groups: American Immigration Council (formerly the American Immigration Law Foundation); National Council of La Raza; National Immigration Forum. Anti-immigrant groups: American Immigration Control Foundation ("Representing many different ethnic groups and backgrounds, AIC Foundation supporters have a deep commitment to preserving our common heritage as Americans, and to helping AIC Foundation educate our fellow citizens on the disastrous effects of uncontrolled immigration." American Immigration Control Foundation, About AICF, http://www.aicfoundation.com/buildingblocks/ pages/About-AICF.aspx (last visited May 15, 201O));
171. Center for Immigration Studies ("It is the Center's mission to expand the base of public knowledge and understanding of the need for an immigration policy that gives first concern to the broad national interest."
172. Center for Immigration Studies, Mission Statement, http://www.cis.org/ About (last visited May 15, 2010));
173. The Federation for American Immigration Reform ("The Federation for American Immigration Reform (FAIR) is a national, nonprofit, public-interest, membership organization of concerned citizens who share a common belief that our nation's immigration policies must be reformed to serve the national interest." The Federation for American Immigration Reform, About, http://www.fairus.org/site/PageNavigator/ about/ (last visited May 15, 2010)).
174. See Victoria Slater, "To Govern is to Populate": Argentine Immigration Law and What it can Suggest for the United States, 31 Hous. J. INT'L L. 693, 718, 730 (2009).
175. Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009 (1996);
176. Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107-56, 115 Stat. 272 (2001).
177. Secure Fence Act of 2006, Pub.L. 109-367, §2, 120 Stat. 2638, 2638 (2006).
178. BLAS NUÑEZ-NETO & YULE KIM, CONGRESSIONAL RESEARCH SERVICE REPORT FOR CONGRESS NO. RL33659, BORDER SECURITY: BARRIERS ALONG THE U.S. INTERNATIONAL BOR-DER 27-28 (May 13, 2008);
179. see Submission to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, The Working Group on Human Rights and the Border Wall, Obstructing Human Rights: The Texas-Mexico Border Wall 12, (June 2008), http://www.utexas.edu/ law/academics/centers/humanrights/borderwall/analysis/briefing-FULL-SET- OFREPORTS.pdf.
180. See Slater, supra note 95, at 716-18.
181. See, e.g., Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act of 2005, S. 1033, 109th Cong. (2005) and H.R. 2330, 109th Cong. (2005);
182. Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, S. 2611, 109th Cong. (2006);
183. Secure Borders, Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007, S. 1348, 110th Cong. (2007);
184. see also, e.g., Tamar Jacoby, Senior Fellow, Manhattan Inst., Testimony at Immigration Overhaul: Hearing Before S. Comm. on the Judiciary, 109th Cong. (2005), available at http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/jacoby07-26-05.htm.
185. Border Protection, Antiterrorism and Illegal Immigration Control Act of 2005, H.R. 4437, 109th Cong. (2005).
186. Online Newshour, Demonstrators March Nation Wide Protesting HR-4437, PBS, Apr. 10, 2006, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/latin-america/jan-june06/ immigration-4-10.html;
187. Immigration Issue Draws Thousands Into Streets, MSNBC, Mar. 25, 2006, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11442705/;
188. see also Xochitl Bada, Jonathan Fox, & Andrew Steele, WOODROW WILSON INT'L CTR. FOR SCHOLARS, INVISIBLE NO MORE: MEXICAN MIGRANT CIVIC PARTICIPATION IN THE UNITED STATES 39-40 (2006), available at http:/ /www.wilsoncenter.org/ news/docs/Invisible%20No%20Morel.pdf. The number of participants in all die demonstrations has varied between several hundred thousand and over a million. Organizers have asserted that more people have attended all of the demonstrations than reported by public audiorities and the press.
189. See, e.g., Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, S. 2611,109th Cong. (2006), reintroduced in 2007 as Secure Borders, Economic Opportunity and Immigration Reform Act of 2007, S. 1348, 110th Cong. (2007).
190. See Slater, supra note 95, at 716-17.
191. See Richard D. Pineda & Stacey K. Sowards, Flag Waving as a Visual Argument: 2006 Immigration Demonstrations and Cultural Citizenship, 43 ARGUMENTATION & ADVOC. 164, 164 (2007);
192. David D. Kirkpatrick, Demonstrations on Immigration Harden a Divide, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 17, 2006, at A16.
193. U.S. IMMIGRATION AND CUSTOMS ENFORCEMENT, ICE FISCAL YEAR 2008 ANNUAL REPORT 4 (2008), available at http://www.ice.gov/doclib/pi/reports/ice-annual- report/ pdf/ice08ar-final.pdf.
194. Id. at 8.
195. Id. at 17.
196. The new law does not address asylum and refugee status. Instead, in 2006, Agentina passed an extensive new refugee and asylum law. Law No. 26.165, Nov. 28, 2006, [31045] B.O. 1.
197. Law No. 25.871, art. 4, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2;
198. see Pablo Ceriani Cernadas, Nueva Ley: un Paso Hacia una Concepción Distinta de la Migración, in MIGRACIÓN: UN DERECHO HUMANO, supra note 1, at 113, 113 (2004).
199. Argentina ratified the Migrant Convention on Feb. 23, 2007;
200. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, GA Res. 45/158, U.N. Doc. A/RES/45/158 (Dec. 18,1990), available at http:/ /treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/ Volume%20I/Chapter%20IV/IV-13.en.pdf.
201. See generally GA Res. 45, supra note 111.
202. Id. at pmbl., art. 79.
203. Id. at Part IV.
204. The Secretary-General, U.N. Multilateral Treaties: Status of Treaties, Deposited with the Secretary-General, U.N. Doc. Res. 45/158, Chapter IV-13, available at http:// treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/MTDSG/Volume%20I/ Chapter%20IV/IV-13.en.pdf.
205. Law No. 25.871, art. 3(a)-(i), Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
206. Id. at titls. II, IV.
207. Id. art. 3(j)-(k).
208. See Giustiniani, supra note 1, at 19-24, 36-42 (2004). However, the Constitution continues to provide for encouragement of European immigration.
209. Id.
210. Law No. 25.871, art. 2, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
211. Compare Chausovsky, supra note 23, and Cámara Federal de Apelaciones de Paraná [CFed], 10/12/2004, "Ali Yun, Lingyan Zheng y Yu Junyun / habeas corpus," L.S. Crim. 2004-11-396 (Arg.) with Law No. 22.439, arts. 33-37, Mar. 23, 1981, [1981-A] LA 273 (repealed).
212. See also Press Release, National Association of Hispanic Journalists, NAHJ Urges News Media to Stop Using Dehumanizing Terms When Covering Immigration (Mar. 27, 2006), http://www.nahj.org/nahjnews/articles/2006/March/ immigrationcoverage.shtml.
213. Press Release, National Association of Hispanic Journalists, NAHJ Urges News Media to Stop Using Dehumanizing Terms When Covering Immigration (Mar. 27, 2006), http://www.nahj.org/nahjnews/articles/2006/March/immigrationcoverage. shtml.
214. Law No. 25.871, art. 6, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
215. Id. arts. 7-8.
216. Id. art. 6.
217. Id. art. 13.
218. Id. arts. 12-13.
219. See U.N. Comm. on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, Consideration of Reports Submitted by State Parties Under Article 9 of the Convention: Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Argentina, ¶ 5, CERD/ C/65/CO/1 (Dec. 10, 2004).
220. Law No. 25.871, art. 5, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
221. See, e.g., id., art. 12.
222. See Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Subsecretaría de Derechos Humanos, Comentarios a propósito de la reglamentación de la Ley 25.871 (undated) (commenting on Law No. 25.871) (on file with author).
223. Law No. 25.871, art. 28, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
224. Treaty Establishing a Common Market between the Agentine Republic, the Federal Republic of Brazil, the Republic of Paraguay and the Eastern Republic of Paraguay (Treaty of Asuncion), art. I, Mar. 26, 1991, 30 I.L.M. 1041, available at http:// www.sice.oas.org/Trade/MRCSR/MRCSRTOC.ASP.
225. Id.
226. The Mercosur was founded in 1991 by the Protocol of Asuncion and was amended in 1994 by the Treaty of Ouro Preto.
227. See id.;
228. Additional Protocol to the Treaty of Asunción on the Institutional Structure of MERCOSUR (Protocol of Ouro Preto), Dec. 17, 1994, 34 I.L.M. 1244, available at http://www.sice.oas.org/trade/mrcsr/ourop/ ourop-e.asp.
229. Law No. 25.871, arts. 9, 14, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
230. Id. art. 9.
231. Id. art. 14.
232. Id. art. 11.
233. Immigration and Nationality Act §287(g), 8 U.S.C. 1357 (1990).
234. See, e.g., MAI THI NGUYEN & HANNAH GILL, THE LATINO MIGRATION PROJECT, THE 287(G) PROGRAM: THE COSTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF LOCAL IMMIGRATION ENFORCEMENT IN NORTH CAROLINA COMMUNITIES at 1-2 (2010), available at http://isa.unc.edu/migration/ resources.asp.
235. GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTABILITY OFFICE, GAO-09-109, IMMIGRATION ENFORCEMENT: BETTER CONTROLS NEEDED OVER PROGRAM AUTHORIZING STATE AND LOCAL ENFORCEMENT OF FEDERAL IMMIGRATION LAWS (2009), available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/ d09109.pdf;
236. Brandon Formby, Criminal Alien Program Still Taking Illegals Arrested for Minor Offenses, DALLAS MORNING NEWS, Jan. 20, 2008;
237. Brandon Formby & Stephanie Sandoval, Irving Cannot Detain Some Illegal Immigrants, DALLAS MORNING NEWS, NOV. 21, 2007;
238. Randy Kennedy, Texas Mayor Caught in Deportation Furor, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 5, 2009, at Al;
239. Trevor Gardner II & Aarti Kohli, The CAP Ejfjfecf: Racial Profiling in the ICE Criminal Alien Program, Policy Brief, THE CHIEF JUSTICE EARL WARREN INSTITUTE ON RACE, ETHNICITY & DIVERSITY (Sept. 2009).
240. Terry Tang, Arizona Sheriff Puts Illegal-Alien Inmates in Tents, Fox NEWS, Feb. 4, 2009, http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2009Feb04/0,4670, ImmigrantsTentCity,00. html;
241. Eddi Trevizo & Derek Cooley, Inmates Marched to Segregated Area of Tent City, THE ARIZ. REPUBLIC, Feb. 4, 2009, http://www.azcentral.com/community/ phoenix/articles/ 2009/02/04/20090204abrk-inmatesmarch0204-ON.html.
242. S B 1070 49th Leg., 2d Reg. Sess. (Ariz. 2010). Numerous plaintiffs, including the United States, have filed lawsuits challenging the constitutionality of the Arizona law.
243. See cases cited infra note 146.
244. Lozano v. City of Hazleton, 496 F. Supp. 2d 477, 477 (M.D. Pa. 2007) (striking down a city ordinance that regulated access to housing and employment of undocumented immigrants);
245. Villas at Parkside Partners v. City of Farmers Branch, 496 F. Supp. 2d 757 761-62 (N.D. Tex. 2007) (granting a preliminary injunction of a city ordinance that required tenants to provide evidence of citizenship or immigration status prior to entering into a lease);
246. Villas at Parkside Partners v. City of Farmers Branch, 577 F. Supp. 2d 858 879 (N D Tex. 2008) (striking down prior Farmers Branch ordinance);
247. Chicanos Por U Causa, Inc. v. Napolitano, 544 F.3d 976, 988 (9th Cir. 2008) (amended m Chicanos Por U Causa, Inc. v. Napolitano, 558 F.3d 856, 861 (9th Cir. 2009)) (upholding validity of state law, the Legal Arizona Workers Act, which sanctions suspension or revocation of business licenses of employers who knowingly or mtentionally hired undocumented workers);
248. Gray v. City of Valley Park, Mo. 567 F.3d 976, 987 (affirming district court decision to uphold validity of city ordinance that made it unlawful tor business owners to recruit, hire, or continue to employ undocumented workers).
249. Law No. 25.871, art. 3(0, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
250. Id. art. 17.
251. Id. art. 26.
252. Id. art. 3(d).
253. Id. art. 10.
254. CSJN, 23/10/2007, "Zhang, Hang v. Estado Nacional-Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto / recurso de hecho," Fallos (2007-330-4554) (Arg.).
255. Id.
256. Nancy Morawetz, Understanding the Impact of the 1996 Deportation Laws and the Limited Scope of Proposed Reforms, 113 HARV. L. REV. 1936, 1938-39 (2000);
257. see Legomsky, supra note 50, at 482-86.
258. Law No. 25.871, art. 20, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
259. Id. art. 22.
260. Id. art. 23(a)-(g).
261. Id. art. 23(h).
262. Id. art. 23(1).
263. Id. art. 23 (j)-(1);
264. See Treaty of Asuncion, supra notes 133-35;
265. See discussion infra at II. D. regarding additional immigration provisions for citizens of the Mercosur.
266. Law No. 25.871 at art. 23(m)-(n), Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
267. Id.
268. Id. art. 24(a)-(g).
269. Id. art. 20.
270. Law 22.439, art. 21, March 23,1981 [1981-A], LA 273 (repealed);
271. see, e.g., Res. No. 1315, July 7,1997, A.O.N. (extending Resolution No. 3850, Oct. 10,1994, to Peruvians.);
272. see Hines, supra note 13, at 404, 410.
273. Law No. 25.871, art. 51, Dec. 17, 2003, [303221 BO 2
274. Id. art. 52.
275. Id. art. 53.
276. id. arts. 55, 59-60.
277. Id. art. 16. This provision relating to the labor rights of workers in irregular immigration status is consistent with the advisory opinion of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights Juridical Condition and Rights of Undocumented Migrants Advisory Opinion OC-18/03, Sept. 17, 2003, Inter-Am Ct. H.R. (Ser. A) No 18 In that Opinion,the Inter African Court rejected the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in Hoffman Plastiv Compounds, Inc. v. National Labor Relations Board; 535 U S 137 (2002), which severely limited the right to a remedy for violation of the labor rights of undocumented immigrants in the United States.
278. Law No. 25.871, arts. 55, 59, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2
279. id.
280. Id. art. 58.
281. Hines, supra note 13, at 420.
282. Law No. 25.871, arts. 116-121, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
283. Id.
284. Tribunal Oral en lo Criminal Federal nro.1 de Córdoba [TOralCrimFedCordoba], 4/4/2007, "Jalil, Gabriel y otros," L.L. (2007-D-84) (Arg.).
285. Id.
286. For the purposes of this article, the terms "expulsion" and "deportation" are interchangeable.
287. Law No. 25.871, arts. 29, 61, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
288. Id. art. 61.
289. Id. arts. 29(a), 35.
290. Id. arts. 29(i)-(k), 37.
291. Id. art. 29(d)-(h).
292. Id. art. 29 (c).
293. Id. art. 29(b).
294. Id. art. 35.
295. Id.
296. Id.
297. Id. arts. 29, 34.
298. See CSJN, 23/10/2007, "Zhang, Hang v. Estado Nacional-Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto/recurso de hecho," Fallos (2007-330-4554) (Ag.).
299. Id.
300. Law No. 25.871, art. 62(a)-(e), Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
301. Id. art. 61.
302. Id. art. 63.
303. Id. arts. 61, 63.
304. Id. art. 61.
305. See discussion of Mercosur and Non-Mercosur Regularization Programs, infra at II.D.
306. O.A.S. Permanent Council, Comm. on Juridical and Political Affairs, Working Group to Prepare an Inter-Am. Program for the Promotion and Protection of the Human Rights of Migrants, Including Migrant Workers and Their Families, Outline of the Presentation by Dr. Adriana Alonso for the Special Session of the Working Group to Be Held on Sept. 30 and Oct. 1, 2004 (Sep. 27,2004) available at http://www.oas.org/consejo/CAJP/ Migrant%20workers%20documents.asp.
307. Decree No. 1169/2004, art. 13, Sept. 6, 2004, [30483] B.O. 1;
308. see also interview with Pablo Asa, Director, CAREF/ CELS/ UBA Immigration Clinic, Attorney at the Immigration Commission of the Defensoría General de la Nación, in Buenos Ares, Ag. (July 4, 2008).
309. See HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, FORCED APART (BY THE NUMBERS): NON-CITIZENS DEPORTED MOSTLY FOR NONVIOLENT OFFENSES 3 (2009), http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/ 2009/04/15/forced-apart-numbers-0. "Removal" is the term employed for the deportation or denial of admission.
310. See, e.g., Kanstroom, Daniel, Post-Deportation Human Rights Law: Aspiration, Oxymoron, or Necessity? 3 STAN. J. CR. & C.L. 195, 195-196 (2007).
311. See Memorandum on Prosecutorial Discretion from William J. Howard Principal Legal Adviser, U.S. Dep't of Homeland Sec., U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (Oct. 24, 2005), available at http://www.refugees.org/ uploadedFiles/Participate/National-Center/ReSource-Library/Oct24th 2005(1).pdf;
312. see also Memorandum on Exercising Prosecutorial Discretion from Doris Meissner, Commissioner, U.S Dep't of Justice, mmigration and Naturalization Serv. (Nov. 17, 2000), available at http://www.miracoahtion.org/uploads/V-/hg/V- hgJbpG0Xs-0mZLNg7CDQ/ProsecutorialDiscretionl.pdf;
313. Legomsky supra note 50;
314. Christopher Nugent, Towards Balancing a New Immigration and Nationality Act: Enhanced Immigration Enforcement and Fair & Humane and Cost-Effective Treatment of Aliens, 5 U. MD. RACE RELIGION GENDER & CLASS 243, 246-50 (2005);
315. Juliet Stumpf, Fitting Punishment, 66 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 1683, 1693 (2009).
316. Law No. 25.871, arts. 74-90, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2
317. Id. art. 76.
318. Id. art. 84.
319. Id. arts. 61, 74.
320. Id. art. 98.
321. Compare Law No 22.439, arts. 37-38, Mar. 23, 1981, [1981-A] LA 273 (repealed) with
322. Cámara Federal de Apelaciones de Paraná [CFed], 10/12/2004 "Ali Yun Lingyan Zheng y Yu Junyun / habeas corpus," L.S. Crim. 2004-II-396 (Arg.) (author's translation).
323. Law No. 25.871, art. 85, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
324. Id. art. 64(a). This immigration provision references Law No. 24.660, art. 17, which provides for semi-release and rehabilitative programs for certain persons who have been convicted of more minor offenses and have served one-half of their sentence.
325. Law No. 25.871, art. 64(b), Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
326. Id. art. 64(c).
327. Id.
328. CONST. ARG. art. 120 (the Public Ministry (Ministerio Público) is comprised of the Attorney General, the Federal Prosecutor, and Federal Defenders Offices. The Ministry is considered "the representative of Argentine society.");
329. see also Convenio con el Ministerio Publico de la Defensa, http://www.migraciones.gov.ar/novedades/includes/ datosNovedad.php?historico= si&id=65&lang= (last visited May 15, 2010);
330. interview with Pablo Asa, Director, CAREF/CELS/UBA Immigration Clinic, Attorney at the Immigration Commission of the Defensoria General de la Nación, in Buenos Aires, Ag. July 3, 2009);
331. interview with Verónica Asurey, Immigration and Criminal Defense Attorney, in Buenos Ares, Ag. July 14, 2009).
332. See, e.g.. Cernadas, supra note 110, at 117;
333. Teresa A. Miller, Citizenship & Severity: Recent Immigration Reforms and the New Penology, 17 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 611, 616 (2003);
334. Morales & Asurey, supra note 84, at 269.
335. See generally Jose Nicasio Dibur, El Articulo 64 de la Ley de Poliiica Migraioria Argentina: Una Norma Inconstitucional?, L.L. (2005-C-224).
336. Cámara Nacional de Casación Penal [C.N.C.P.], Sala I, 28/2/2005, "Chukura O'Kasili, Nicholas / recurso de inconstitucionalidad" (Arg.).
337. Id.
338. Id.
339. Id.
340. Id.
341. See also C.N.C.P., Sala III, 29/6/2005, "Flores Martínez Mauricio Osmar / recurso de inconstitucionalidad" (Ag.) (rejecting similar arguments made by the prosecutor).
342. C.N.C.P., Sala III, 6/11/2006, "Chambi Loaiza Adolfo / recurso de casación" (Arg.).
343. Id.
344. Id.
345. C.N.C.P., Sala HI, 12/6/2007, "Cercedo Masgo Pedro Miguel / recurso de casación" (Ag.).
346. Id.
347. Id. (Dra. Angela Ester Ledesma, dissenting).
348. Id.
349. Law No. 25.871, art. 86, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
350. Id.
351. See supra note 215. The national federal defenders are part of the Ministerio Público.
352. Law No. 25.871, art. 4, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
353. Id. art. 86.
354. Id. art. 98;
355. see also interview with Pablo Asa, Director, CAREF/CELS/UBA Immigration Clinic, Attorney at the Immigration Commission of the Defensoria General de la Nación, supra note 215;
356. Convenio con el Ministerio Publico de la Defensa, http://www. migraciones.gov.ar/novedades/includes/datosNovedad.php?historico=si&id= 65&lang= (last visited May 15, 2010).
357. 8 U.S.C §1229a(b)(4)(A) (2006) (providing diat an alien has a "privilege of being represented, at no expense to the Government, by counsel of the alien's choosing.");
358. Fong Haw Tan v. Phelan, 333 U.S. 6, 10 (1948) ("[DJeportation is a drastic measure and at times the equivalent of banishment or exile.");
359. Ng Fung Ho v. White, 259 U.S. 276, 284 (1922) ("[Deportation] may result also in loss of both property and life, or of all that makes life worth living.").
360. Donald Kerwin, Revisiting the Need for Appointed Counsel, MIGRATION POLICY INSTITUTE: INSIGHT, Apr. 2005, at 1;
361. Andrew I. Schoenholtz & Jonathan Jacobs, The State of Asylum Representation: Ideas for Change,16 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J. 739, 747 (2002);
362. Beth J. Werlin, Note, Renewing the Call: Immigrants' Right to Appointed Counsel in Deportation Proceedings, 20 B.C. THIRD WORLD LJ. 393, 404 (2000).
363. Law No. 25.871, art. 71, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
364. Id. arts. 69-70.
365. Id. art. 70.
366. Id.
367. Id. art. 71.
368. See interview with Pablo Asa, Director, CAREF/CELS/UBA Immigration Clinic, Attorney at the Immigration Commission of the Defensoria General de la Nación, supra note 215.
369. Jugzado Federal [Juzg. Fed.] [lower federal courts], 22/6/2004, "Zeng Xiankai s/ habeas corpus," La Ley [L.L.] (2004-E-4) at 4 (Ag.).
370. Id.
371. Law No. 25.871, art. 70, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2. ("In exceptional cases and when the circumstances justify it, the National Immigration Department or the Ministry of the Interior may request from the judicial authority the detention of a foreigner even if the expulsion order is not final.").
372. Law No. 25.871, art. 61, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2. ("Upon confirming a foreigner's irregular status in the country, and considering his profession and Argentine citizen relatives, length of residence, and other personal and social conditions, the National Immigration Department shall order the foreigner to regularize his status during a set time period in lieu of an expulsion decree.").
373. Juzgado Federal [Juzg. Fed.], 10/12/04, "Ali Yun, Lingyan Zheng, Yu Junyun / habeas corpus," L.S.CRIM. 2004-11-396 at 6 (Ag.).
374. 8 U.S.C. §1225(b)(2)(A) (2006) ("in the case of an alien who is an applicant for admission, if the examining immigration officer determines that an alien seeking admission is not clearly and beyond a doubt entitled to be admitted, the alien shall be detained for a proceeding under section 1229(a) of this title.").
375. 8 U.S.C §1226(c) (2006);
376. Demore v. Kim, 538 U.S. 510, 521-523 (2003).
377. Detention Watch, About the U.S. Detention and Deportation System, http:// www.detentionwatchnetwork.org/aboutdetention (last visited May 15, 2010);
378. Amnesty Int'l, Jailed Without Justice: Immigration Detention In the USA (Mar. 2009), available at http://www.amnestyusa.org/immigrant-rights/immigrant- detention-report/page.do7id1641033.
379. Detention Watch, supra note 250.
380. Nina Bernstein, Officials Obscured Truth of Migrant Deaths in Jail, N.Y. TiMES.Jan. 10, 2010, at Al.
381. DORA SCHRIRO, DEP'T OF HOMELAND SECURITY: IMMIGRATION AND CUSTOMS ENFORCEMENT, IMMIGRATION DETENTION OVERVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS 2 (Oct. 6, 2009) (citing a daily immigrant detention figure on Sept. 1, 2009 of 31,075);
382. Trac Immigration, Huge Increase in Transfers of ICE Detainees, http://trac.syr.edu/immigration/ reports/220/ (last visited May 15, 2010) (citing a total immigrant detainee population of 369,483 in 2009).
383. Acuerdo sobre residencia para nacionales de los Estados Partes del Mercosur Bolivia y Chile, Dec. 6, 2002, http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/htmlstat/ pl/acuerdos/ acuel7927-2.htm.
384. Law No. 25.871, art. 23, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
385. Law No. 25.871, art. 28, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.
386. Law No. 25.902, June 9, 2004, [30443] B.O. 3;
387. Decree No. 836/2004, July 7, 2004, [30438] B.O. 4.
388. Brian Byrnes, Mafeing Room: Argentina Finds a Place for its Local Immigrants, NEWSWEEK INTERNATIONAL, Sept. 11, 2006, available at http://www.newsweek.com/id/ 45526.
389. MINISTERIO DEL INTERIOR, DIRECCIÓN NACIONAL DE MIGRACIONES (2008), http://www.migraciones.gov.ar/prensa/noticias/24-12- 08%20Perfil%20migratorio%20de%20 Argentina.htm.
390. Decree No. 1169/2004, Sept. 13, 2004, [30483] B.O. 1.
391. Id.
392. Id.
393. Law No. 25.871, arts. 10-11, Dec. 17, 2003, [30322] B.O. 2.;
394. SUSANA NOVICK, ALEJANDRO HENER, & PABLO DALLE, INSTITUTO DE INVESTIGACIONES GINO GERMANI, FACULTAD DE CIENCIAS SOCIALES UNIVERSIDAD DE BUENOS AIRES, EL PROCESO DE INTEGRACIÓN MERCOSUR: DE LAS POLITICAS MIGRATORIAS Y DE SEGURIDAD A LAS TRAYECTORIAS DE LOS INMIGRANTES, at 50-51 (Dec. 2005), http://www.iigg.fsoc.uba.ar/pobmigra/archivos/dt46.pdf.
395. MINISTERIO DEL INTERIOR, DIRECCIÓN NACIONAL DE MIGRACIONES (2008), http://www.migraciones.gov.ar/prensa/noticias/24-12- 08%20Perfil%20migratorio%20de%20Argentina.htm.
396. Chausovsky, supra note 23, at 9.
397. RICHARD J. PIERCE, JR., ADMINISTRATIVE LAW TREATISE, VOL. 1, 373 (Apen 2002). A further justification for the U.S. regulatory process relates to the requirement of public comment and public hearings under the Administrative Procedures Acts. Argentina does not have a comparable mechanism.
398. BASIS OF THE PRESENTATION OF DR. ADRIANA ALONSO FOR THE SPECIAL MEETING OF THE WORKING GROUP, ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES 5 (scm.oas.org/doc-public/ SPANISH/HIST-04/CP13349S04.DOC).
399. Id.
400. Id.
401. Id.
402. Email from Judge Gabriel Chausovsky to Barbara Hines (Jul. 26, 2009) (on file with author).
403. Interview with Diego Morales, Director of Litigation, CELS, in Bogota, Colom. (Nov. 14, 2009). Delays in issuing regulations have similarly occurred in U.S. immigration law. For example, the statute defining unlawful presence, a new ground of inadmissibility, was enacted in 1996 but regulations defining this term have yet to be promulgated.
404. 8 U.S.C §1182(a)(9) (2006). Similarly, in 2000, Congress created the U Visa, but did not promulgate regulations until seven years later.
405. 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(15)(U)(i)(III) (2006);
406. New Classification for Victims of Criminal Activity; Eligibility for "U" Nonimmigrant Status, 72 Fed. Reg. 53014, 53015 (Sept. 17, 2007) (to be codified at 8 C.F.R. pts. 103, 212, 214, 248, 274a, & 299).
407. Interview with Pablo Asa, Director, CELS/CAREF/UBA Immigration Clinic, Attorney at the Immigration Commission of the Defensoria General de la Nación, supra note 215.
408. Chausovsky, supra note 23, at 9;
409. interview with Pablo Asa, Director, CELS/CAREF/UBA, supra note 215.
410. See Chinese Embassy letter, supra note 23.
411. Propuestas del Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Refugiados (ACNUR) para la reglamentación de la Ley de Migraciones No. 25.871 [Proposals of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for the Regulation of Migration Act no. 25.871] (spring 2004) (on file with author).
412. Government of the City of Buenos Aires, Human Rights Department, Comentarios a Propósito de la Reglamentación de la Ley 25.871 [Commentaries Concerning the Regulation of Law No. 25.871].
413. Interview with Diego Morales, Director of Litigation, CELS in Buenos Ares, Ag. & Bogotá, Colom. (Jul. 3, 2009).
414. Id.
415. Llega la reglamentación pendiente hace 4 años. PERIÕDICO MIGRACIONES (Dirección Nacional de Migraciones, Ministerio del Interior de la Nación, Buenos Aires, Ag.), Nov. 2008 at 1.
416. Interview with Diego Morales, Director of Litigation, CELS in Buenos Aires, Ag. & Bogotá, Colom. (Nov. 14, 2009).
417. See supra text accompanying notes 191, 218-222, 244-245.
418. Boletín Oficial No. 31.898, Migraciones, Decreto 616/2010, Reglamentación de la ley de Migraciones No. 25.871 y sus modificatorias, Bs. A 3/5/2010.
419. Id.
420. Id. art. 6
421. Id.
422. Id. art. 7, 8, 19.
423. Id. art. 9 (a), (b).
424. See supra text accompanying note 273.
425. Ley 25.871 Reglamentación, art. 9 (c), 17.
426. See supra text accompanying note 274.
427. Ley 25.871 Reglamentación, art. 22(a), (b).
428. Id. (c).
429. Id. art. 23 (m).
430. Id. art. 70.
431. Id.
432. Id.
433. Id. art. 72.
434. Id. art. 86.
435. Id. art. 35(a).
436. See supra text accompanying notes 129-131.
437. See supra text accompanying notes 171-172.