Surgeon's garb and infection control: What's the evidence?

Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology

Volumn 64, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 960.e1-960.e20

  Eisen, Daniel B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

attire; booties; cap; garb; gloves; gown; head covering; mask; surgical site infection

Indexed keywords

AGGLUTINATION TEST; AIRBORNE BACTERIUM; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL COUNT; BACTERIAL TRANSMISSION; BACTERIUM CONTAMINATION; BANDAGES AND DRESSINGS; CENTRAL VENOUS CATHETER; COLONY FORMING UNIT; GENERAL SURGERY; HAND WASHING; HELMET; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; INFECTION RATE; INSTRUMENT STERILIZATION; LAMINAR AIRFLOW; OPERATING ROOM; OPERATION DURATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTECTIVE CLOTHING; PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); SCALP HAIR; SHOE; SKIN PROTECTION; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; SURGEON; SURGICAL GLOVE; SURGICAL GOWN; SURGICAL INFECTION; SURGICAL MASK; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; SURGICAL WOUND; THEATRE SHOE; TOOTH EXTRACTION; VENTILATOR; WOUND CLOSURE;

EID: 79954784849     PISSN: 01909622     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2010.04.037     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Semmelweis I. The etiology, the concept and the prophylaxis of childbed fever. In: Pest CA, editor; Murphy FP, trans. Hartleben's Verlag-Expedition. Republished Birmingham: Classics of Medicine Library; 1981; 1861.
2. R. Wertz, and D. Wertz Lying in: a history of childbirth in America 1977 The Free Press New York
3. G.B. Ha'eri, and A.M. Wiley The efficacy of standard surgical face masks: an investigation using "tracer particles." Clin Orthop Relat Res 148 1980 160 162 (Pubitemid 11243075)
4. G.B. Ha'eri, and A.M. Wiley Wound contamination through drapes and gowns: a study using tracer particles Clin Orthop Relat Res 154 1981 181 184 (Pubitemid 11139799)
5. W. Whyte, A. Hambraeus, G. Laurell, and J. Hoborn The relative importance of routes and sources of wound contamination during general surgery, I: non-airborne J Hosp Infect 18 1991 93 107
6. C.Y. Bitkover, E. Marcusson, and U. Ransjo Spread of coagulase-negative staphylococci during cardiac operations in a modern operating room Ann Thorac Surg 69 2000 1110 1115 (Pubitemid 30259369)
7. A.M. Wiley, and G.B. Ha'eri Routes of infection: a study of using "tracer particles" in the orthopedic operating room Clin Orthop Relat Res 139 1979 150 155 (Pubitemid 9210185)
8. D.B. Eisen, L. Warshawski, D. Zloty, and R. Azari Results of a survey regarding perioperative antiseptic practices J Cutan Med Surg 13 2009 134 139
9. C. Brandt, U. Hott, D. Sohr, F. Daschner, P. Gastmeier, and H. Ruden Operating room ventilation with laminar airflow shows no protective effect on the surgical site infection rate in orthopedic and abdominal surgery Ann Surg 248 2008 695 700
10. Merriam-Webster. Definition: Operatory. Merriam-Webster online. Available from: URL: http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/operatory. Accessed March 30, 2010.
11. J. Randers-Pehrson The surgeon's glove 1960 Charles C Thomas Springfield (IL)
12. J.M. Miller William Stewart Halsted and the use of the surgical rubber glove Surgery 92 1982 541 543 (Pubitemid 13083893)
13. I.M. Rutkow The surgeon's glove Arch Surg 134 1999 223
14. M. Tucker The reluctant surgeon Postgrad Med 9 1951 74 81
15. W. Acton On the advantages of solutions of caoutchouc and gutta percha in protecting the skin against the contagion of animal poisons Lancet 52 1848 589 590
16. T. Cattell On the precautionary measures which may be employed in dissections and post-mortem examinations Lancet 49 1847 645
17. W. Halsted Ligature and suture material: the employment of fine silk in preference to cat gut and the advantages of transfixion of tissues and vessels in control of hemorrhage; also-an account of the introduction of gloves, gutta-percha tissue and silver foil JAMA 60 1913 1119 1126
18. D.M. Blair First use of gloves in surgery Br Med J 1 1933 632
19. C. Waverley Rubber groves in surgery Br J Surg 30 1943 283 284
20. J. Mikulicz Operating with sterile cotton gloves and mask Central Chir 26 1897 713
21. M.A. Ritter, M.L. French, and H. Eitzen Evaluation of microbial contamination of surgical gloves during actual use Clin Orthop Relat Res 117 1976 303 306
22. C. McBurney IV: The use of rubber gloves in operative surgery Ann Surg 28 1898 108 119
23. J.C. Bloodgood Halsted 36 years ago 1931 Paul B. Hoeber Inc New York
24. G.W. Geelhoed The pre-Halstedian and post-Halstedian history of the surgical rubber glove Surg Gynecol Obstet 167 1988 350 356 (Pubitemid 18262223)
25. C.W. Walter, and R.B. Kundsin The bacteriologic study of surgical gloves from 250 operations Surg Gynecol Obstet 129 1969 949 952
26. R.D. Dodds, P.J. Guy, A.M. Peacock, S.R. Duffy, S.G. Barker, and M.H. Thomas Surgical glove perforation Br J Surg 75 1988 966 968 (Pubitemid 19009390)
27. P.J. Cruse, and R. Foord The epidemiology of wound infection: a 10-year prospective study of 62,939 wounds Surg Clin North Am 60 1980 27 40 (Pubitemid 10049641)
28. M.B. Rhinehart, M.M. Murphy, M.F. Farley, and J.G. Albertini Sterile versus nonsterile gloves during Mohs micrographic surgery: infection rate is not affected Dermatol Surg 32 2006 170 176
29. A.M. Rogues, A. Lasheras, J.M. Amici, P. Guillot, C. Beylot, and A. Taieb Infection control practices and infectious complications in dermatological surgery J Hosp Infect 65 2007 258 263
30. S. Hemsworth, K. Selwood, R. van Saene, and B. Pizer Does the number of exogenous infections increase in pediatric oncology patients when sterile surgical gloves are not worn for accessing central venous access devices? Eur J Oncol Nurs 11 2007 442 447
31. W.K. Chiu, L.K. Cheung, H.C. Chan, and L.K. Chow A comparison of post-operative complications following wisdom tooth surgery performed with sterile or clean gloves Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 35 2006 174 179 (Pubitemid 43079032)
32. L.J. Rossoff, S. Lam, E. Hilton, M. Borenstein, and H.D. Isenberg Is the use of boxed gloves in an intensive care unit safe? Am J Med 94 1993 602 607 (Pubitemid 23166706)
33. G.M. Cohn, and D.B. Seifer Blood exposure in single versus double gloving during pelvic surgery Am J Obstet Gynecol 162 1990 715 717 (Pubitemid 20116325)
34. J. Tanner, and H. Parkinson Double gloving to reduce surgical cross-infection Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 2002 CD003087
35. R.D. Dodds, S.G. Barker, N.H. Morgan, D.R. Donaldson, and M.H. Thomas Self protection in surgery: the use of double gloves Br J Surg 77 1990 219 220 (Pubitemid 20055849)
36. E.J. Sebold, and L.R. Jordan Intraoperative glove perforation: a comparative analysis Clin Orthop Relat Res 297 1993 242 244 (Pubitemid 24000660)
37. R. Sanders, P. Fortin, E. Ross, and D. Helfet Outer gloves in orthopedic procedures: cloth compared with latex J Bone Joint Surg Am 72 1990 914 917 (Pubitemid 20246898)
38. J. Tanner, and H. Parkinson Double gloving to reduce surgical cross-infection Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 2006 CD003087
39. S.F. McCue, E.W. Berg, and E.A. Saunders Efficacy of double-gloving as a barrier to microbial contamination during total joint arthroplasty J Bone Joint Surg Am 63 1981 811 813 (Pubitemid 11127667)
40. E.E. Shouldice, and C.J. Martin Wound infections, surgical gloves and hands of operating personnel Can Med Assoc J 81 1959 636 640
41. W. Whyte, A. Hambraeus, G. Laurell, and J. Hoborn The relative importance of the routes and sources of wound contamination during general surgery, II: airborne J Hosp Infect 22 1992 41 54
42. T.G. Tunevall Postoperative wound infections and surgical face masks: a controlled study World J Surg 15 1991 383 388
43. J. Mikulicz Das operiren in sterilisirten zwirnhandschuhen und mit mundbinde Central Chir 26 1897 714
44. W. Hubener Ueber die die moglichkeit der wundinfection vom munde aus und ihre verhitung durch operationsmasken Zeitschrift fir Hygiene 28 1898 348
45. C.A. Rockwood Jr., and D.H. O'Donoghue The surgical mask: its development, usage, and efficiency; a review of the literature, and new experimental studies Arch Surg 80 1960 963 971
46. K.B. Rogers An investigation into the efficiency of disposable face masks J Clin Pathol 33 1980 1086 1091 (Pubitemid 11194202)
47. L.B. Quesnel The efficiency of surgical masks of varying design and composition Br J Surg 62 1975 936 940
48. L.V. Wagenknecht, and P.O. Madsen Experimental testing of the effectivity of surgical face masks [in German] Chirurg 45 1974 184 186
49. P.O. Madsen, and R.E. Madsen A study of disposable surgical masks Am J Surg 114 1967 431 435
50. R. Adams, B. Fahlman, and J. Lord New fashions in surgical attire Am J Nurs 59 1959 1102 1107
51. B.C. Doust Face masks in infections of the respiratory tract JAMA 71 1918 1216
52. G.H. Weaver Droplet infection and its prevention by the face masks J Infect Dis 24 1919 219
53. J.S. Davis Is adequate masking essential for the patient's protection? Ann Surg 105 1937 990 1008
54. H.M. Leete Some experiments on masks Lancet 193 1919 392 393
55. C.F. McKhann, D.A. Steeger, and A.P. Long Hospital infections Am J Dis Child 55 1938 579
56. A. Lipp, and P. Edwards Disposable surgical face masks: a systematic review Can Oper Room Nurs J 23 2005 20 21 4-5, 33-8
57. F.L. Meleney, and F.A. Stevens Postoperative hemolytic streptococcus wound infections and their relation to hemolytic streptococcus carriers among the operating personnel Surg Gynecol Obstet 43 1926 338 342
58. B.R. Bergman, J. Hoborn, and A.L. Nachemson Patient draping and staff clothing in the operating theatre: a microbiological study Scand J Infect Dis 17 1985 421 426 (Pubitemid 16212016)
59. B. Friberg, S. Friberg, R. Ostensson, and L.G. Burman Surgical area contamination-comparable bacterial counts using disposable head and mask and helmet aspirator system, but dramatic increase upon omission of head-gear: an experimental study in horizontal laminar air-flow J Hosp Infect 47 2001 110 115 (Pubitemid 32181724)
60. W. Whyte, R. Hodgson, and J. Tinkler The importance of airborne bacterial contamination of wounds J Hosp Infect 3 1982 123 135 (Pubitemid 12060150)
61. M.A. Ritter, H. Eitzen, M.L. French, and J.B. Hart The operating room environment as affected by people and the surgical face mask Clin Orthop Relat Res 111 1975 147 150
62. W.E. Bischoff, B.K. Tucker, M.L. Wallis, B.A. Reboussin, M.A. Pfaller, and F.G. Hayden Preventing the airborne spread of Staphylococcus aureus by persons with the common cold: effect of surgical scrubs, gowns, and masks Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 28 2007 1148 1154 (Pubitemid 47580457)
63. R.A. Shooter, M.A. Smith, and C.J. Hunter A study of surgical masks Br J Surg 47 1959 246 249
64. R. Hare, and C.G. Thomas The transmission of Staphylococcus aureus Br Med J 2 1956 840 844
65. N.J. Mitchell, and S. Hunt Surgical face masks in modern operating rooms-a costly and unnecessary ritual? J Hosp Infect 18 1991 239 242
66. J.W. Hirshfeld, and P.J. Laube Surgical masks: an experimental study Surgery 9 1941 720 730
67. J.C. Ruthman, D. Hendricksen, R.F. Miller, and D.L. Quigg Effect of cap and mask on infection rates in wounds sutured in the emergency department IMJ Ill Med J 165 1984 397 399
68. J.E. Caliendo Surgical masks during laceration repair [letter] JACEP 5 1976 278 279
69. N.W. Orr Is a mask necessary in the operating theatre? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 63 1981 390 392 (Pubitemid 11017812)
70. A. Weber, K. Willeke, R. Marchioni, T. Myojo, R. McKay, and J. Donnelly Aerosol penetration and leakage characteristics of masks used in the health care industry Am J Infect Control 21 1993 167 173 (Pubitemid 23259542)
71. C.R. Ford, D.E. Peterson, and C.R. Mitchell An appraisal of the role of surgical face masks Am J Surg 113 1967 787 790
72. M.G. Romney Surgical face masks in the operating theatre: re-examining the evidence J Hosp Infect 47 2001 251 256 (Pubitemid 32631859)
73. J.P. Duguid, and A.T. Wallace Air infection with dust liberated from clothing Lancet 2 1948 845 849
74. W.C. Noble Dispersal of skin microorganisms Br J Dermatol 93 1975 477 485
75. T.D. Mastro, T.A. Farley, J.A. Elliott, R.R. Facklam, J.R. Perks, and J.L. Hadler An outbreak of surgical-wound infections due to group A streptococcus carried on the scalp N Engl J Med 323 1990 968 972 (Pubitemid 20332336)
76. T. Black The bacterial flora of the skin and its relation to post-operative wound infection Trans Soc Occup Med 16 1966 18 23
77. M.M. Summers, P.F. Lynch, and T. Black Hair as a reservoir of staphylococci J Clin Pathol 18 1965 13 15
78. M.A. Ritter, H.E. Eitzen, J.B. Hart, and M.L. French The surgeon's garb Clin Orthop Relat Res 153 1980 204 209 (Pubitemid 11217769)
79. P. Dineen, and L. Drusin Epidemics of postoperative wound infections associated with hair carriers Lancet 2 1973 1157 1159
80. J. Tanner, D. Woodings, and K. Moncaster Preoperative hair removal to reduce surgical site infection Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 2006 CD004122
81. K.R. Winston Hair and neurosurgery Neurosurgery 31 1992 320 329
82. S.F. Mishriki, D.J. Law, and P.J. Jeffery Factors affecting the incidence of postoperative wound infection J Hosp Infect 16 1990 223 230 (Pubitemid 20387332)
83. M.A. Sheinberg, and D.A. Ross Cranial procedures without hair removal Neurosurgery 44 1999 1263 1266 (Pubitemid 29252746)
84. M.S. Siddique, V. Matai, and J.C. Sutcliffe The preoperative skin shave in neurosurgery: is it justified? Br J Neurosurg 12 1998 131 135 (Pubitemid 28204189)
85. R.C. Doberneck, and R. Kleinman The surgical garb Surgery 95 1984 694 698 (Pubitemid 14112731)
86. R. Meade An introduction to the history of general surgery 1968 WB Saunders Co Philadelphia
87. R. Lafreniere, J.M. Bohnen, J. Pasieka, and C.C. Spry Infection control in the operating room: current practices or sacred cows? J Am Coll Surg 193 2001 407 416 (Pubitemid 32895982)
88. G. Neuber Die Aseptiche Wundehandlung in meinen chirugischen Privat Hospitalern 1886 Lipsius & Tischer Kiel
89. Schleich C. Bersonnte Vergangenheit. Berlin; 1923.
90. P. Mantin, and R. Pulley Medicine through the ages 1989 Stanley Thornes Cheltenham
91. R. Blowers, and M. McCluskey Design of operating-room dress for surgeons Lancet 2 1965 681 683
92. W.C. Noble, O.M. Lidwell, and D. Kingston The size distribution of airborne particles carrying micro-organisms J Hyg (Lond) 61 1963 385 391
93. W. Whyte, D. Vesley, and R. Hodgson Bacterial dispersion in relation to operating room clothing J Hyg (Lond) 76 1976 367 378
94. W. Whyte, and P.V. Bailey Reduction of microbial dispersion by clothing J Parenter Sci Technol 39 1985 51 61
95. E.A. Devenish, and A.A. Miles Control of Staphylococcus aureus in an operating-theatre Lancet 233 1939 1088 1094
96. W.C. Beck, and T.S. Collette False faith in the surgeon's gown and surgical drape Am J Surg 83 1952 125 126
97. N.L. Belkin A historical review of barrier materials AORN J 76 2002 648 653
98. N.L. Belkin Textiles as aseptic barriers: the past, present, and future Med Instrum 14 1980 233 236 (Pubitemid 11229993)
99. N.L. Belkin Testing surgical gowns for the "anticipated level of exposure." J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 10 2000 119 122 (Pubitemid 30227141)
100. H. Laufman, W.W. Eudy, A.M. Vandernoot, C.A. Harris, and D. Liu Strike-through of moist contamination by woven and nonwoven surgical materials Ann Surg 181 1975 857 862
101. J.T. Schwartz, and D.E. Saunders Microbial penetration of surgical gown materials Surg Gynecol Obstet 150 1980 507 512 (Pubitemid 10134949)
102. J.A. Moylan, E. Balish, and J. Chan Intraoperative bacterial transmission Surg Gynecol Obstet 141 1975 731 733
103. W. Beck, M.H. Meeker, and G.M. Olderman Demise of aseptic barrier committee: success and failure AORN J 38 1983 384 388
104. J.W. Smith, and R.L. Nichols Barrier efficiency of surgical gowns: are we really protected from our patients' pathogens? Arch Surg 126 1991 756 763
105. F.K. Ahmad, S.J. Sherman, and K.H. Hagglund The use and failure rates of protective equipment to prevent blood and bodily fluid contamination in the obstetric health care worker Obstet Gynecol 92 1998 131 136 (Pubitemid 28285335)
106. W.A. Rutala, and D.J. Weber A review of single-use and reusable gowns and drapes in health care Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 2001 248 257 (Pubitemid 32454500)
107. H.R. Bernard, R. Speers Jr., F.W. O'Grady, and R.A. Shooter Airborne bacterial contamination: investigation of human sources Arch Surg 91 1965 530 533
108. A. Hambraeus Aerobiology in the operating room-a review J Hosp Infect 11 Suppl 1988 68 76
109. N.J. Mitchell, and D.R. Gamble Clothing design for operating-room personnel Lancet 2 1974 1133 1136
110. J. Hill, A. Howell, and R. Blowers Effect of clothing on dispersal of Staphylococcus aureus by males and females Lancet 2 1974 1131 1133
111. R. Hare, and M. Ridley Further studies on the transmission of Staph aureus Br Med J 1 1958 69 73
112. M. Ridley Perineal carriage of Staph aureus Br Med J 1 1959 270 273
113. H.J. Kolmos, R.N. Svendsen, and S.V. Nielsen The surgical team as a source of postoperative wound infections caused by Streptococcus pyogenes J Hosp Infect 35 1997 207 214 (Pubitemid 27145971)
114. G.A. Ayliffe, J.R. Babb, and B.J. Collings Dispersal of Staphylococcus aureus [letter] Lancet 2 1974 1573
115. C.O. Solberg A study of carriers of Staphylococcus aureus with special regard to quantitative bacterial estimations Acta Med Scand Suppl 436 1965 1 96
116. E. Benediktsdottir, and A. Hambraeus Dispersal of non-sporeforming anaerobic bacteria from the skin J Hyg (Lond) 88 1982 487 500 (Pubitemid 12081337)
117. W. Whyte, D.L. Hamblen, I.G. Kelly, A. Hambraeus, and G. Laurell An investigation of occlusive polyester surgical clothing J Hosp Infect 15 1990 363 374 (Pubitemid 20299184)
118. D.J. Alford, M.A. Ritter, M.L. French, and J.B. Hart The operating room gown as a barrier to bacterial shedding Am J Surg 125 1973 589 591
119. L. Sanzen, A.S. Carlsson, and M. Walder Air contamination during total hip arthroplasty in an ultraclean air enclosure using different types of staff clothing J Arthroplasty 5 1990 127 130 (Pubitemid 20317073)
120. G. Blomgren, J. Hoborn, and B. Nystrom Reduction of contamination at total hip replacement by special working clothes J Bone Joint Surg Br 72 1990 985 987
121. M.J. Hubble, A.E. Weale, J.V. Perez, K.E. Bowker, A.P. MacGowan, and G.C. Bannister Clothing in laminar-flow operating theatres J Hosp Infect 32 1996 1 7 (Pubitemid 26120027)
122. G. Blomgren, A. Hambraeus, and A.S. Malmborg The influence of the total body exhaust suit on air and wound contamination in elective hip-operations J Hosp Infect 4 1983 257 268 (Pubitemid 14228463)
123. K. Verkkala, A. Eklund, J. Ojajarvi, L. Tiittanen, J. Hoborn, and P. Makela The conventionally ventilated operating theatre and air contamination control during cardiac surgery-bacteriological and particulate matter control garment options for low level contamination Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 14 1998 206 210 (Pubitemid 28413662)
124. A. Tammelin, A. Hambraeus, and E. Stahle Routes and sources of Staphylococcus aureus transmitted to the surgical wound during cardiothoracic surgery: possibility of preventing wound contamination by use of special scrub suits Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 22 2001 338 346 (Pubitemid 32777033)
125. J. Bellchambers, J.M. Harris, P. Cullinan, H. Gaya, and J.R. Pepper A prospective study of wound infection in coronary artery surgery Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 15 1999 45 50 (Pubitemid 29084550)
126. J.A. Moylan, K.T. Fitzpatrick, and K.E. Davenport Reducing wound infections: improved gown and drape barrier performance Arch Surg 122 1987 152 157 (Pubitemid 17007176)
127. N.L. Belkin Are "barrier" drapes cost effective? Todays Surg Nurse 20 1998 18 23
128. J.A. Moylan, and B.V. Kennedy The importance of gown and drape barriers in the prevention of wound infection Surg Gynecol Obstet 151 1980 465 470 (Pubitemid 10005957)
129. R.A. Garibaldi, S. Maglio, T. Lerer, D. Becker, and R. Lyons Comparison of nonwoven and woven gown and drape fabric to prevent intraoperative wound contamination and postoperative infection Am J Surg 152 1986 505 509 (Pubitemid 17179149)
130. B.C. Baldwin, I.L. Fox, and C. Russ Affect of disposable draping on wound infection rate Va Med 108 1981 477 (Pubitemid 11011658)
131. J. Charnley, and N. Eftekhar Penetration of gown material by organisms from the surgeon's body Lancet 1 1969 172 173
132. B.J. Lankester, G.E. Bartlett, N. Garneti, A.W. Blom, K.E. Bowker, and G.C. Bannister Direct measurement of bacterial penetration through surgical gowns: a new method J Hosp Infect 50 2002 281 285 (Pubitemid 37554856)
133. N.L. Belkin Bacterial penetration vis-a-vis lint generation J Hosp Infect 52 2002 315 317 (Pubitemid 38001918)
134. K.K. Leonas Effect of laundering on the barrier properties of reusable surgical gown fabrics Am J Infect Control 26 1998 495 501 (Pubitemid 28478033)
135. A. Hambraeus, S. Bengtsson, and G. Laurell Bacterial contamination in a modern operating suite, 3: importance of floor contamination as a source of airborne bacteria J Hyg (Lond) 80 1978 169 174 (Pubitemid 8310417)
136. R. Amirfeyz, A. Tasker, S. Ali, K. Bowker, and A. Blom Theatre shoes-a link in the common pathway of postoperative wound infection? Ann R Coll Surg Engl 89 2007 605 608 (Pubitemid 47408292)
137. J.A. Thomas, L.J. Fligelstone, T.E. Jerwood, and R.W. Rees Theatre footwear: a health hazard? Br J Theatre Nurs 3 1993 5 6 9
138. I. Nagai, M. Kadota, M. Takechi, R. Kumamoto, M. Ueoka, and K. Matsuoka Studies on the mode of bacterial contamination of an operating theatre corridor floor J Hosp Infect 5 1984 50 55 (Pubitemid 14126533)
139. G. Copp, L. Slezak, N. Dudley, and C.B. Mailhot Footwear practices and operating room contamination Nurs Res 36 1987 366 369 (Pubitemid 18018077)
140. J.S. Garner, T.G. Emori, and R.W. Haley Operating room practices for the control of infection in US hospitals, October 1976 to July 1977 Surg Gynecol Obstet 155 1982 873 880 (Pubitemid 13198485)
141. J.M. Davis Principles of infection: prevention and treatment 2005 Springer New York
142. H. Humphreys, R.J. Marshall, V.E. Ricketts, A.J. Russell, and D.S. Reeves Theatre over-shoes do not reduce operating theatre floor bacterial counts J Hosp Infect 17 1991 117 123
143. N.C. Weightman, and K.R. Banfield Protective over-shoes are unnecessary in a day surgery unit J Hosp Infect 28 1994 1 3 (Pubitemid 24297787)
144. A. Hambraeus, and A.S. Malmborg The influence of different footwear on floor contamination Scand J Infect Dis 11 1979 243 246 (Pubitemid 10230113)
145. M.A. Ritter, J. Sieber, and S. Carlson Street shoes vs surgical footwear in the operating room Infections Surg 3 1984 80 83
146. R. Carter The journal of infection control nursing: ritual and risk Nurs Times 86 1990 63 64
147. M. Jones, and M. Jakeways Theatre nursing: over-estimating overshoes Nurs Times 84 1988 66 71
148. P.R. Summers, M.K. Biswas, S.G. Portera, and L. Moore Blood-saturated operating-room shoe covers West J Med 157 1992 184 185
149. Bentham AJ. Problem in a cardiothoracic unit. 10th Annual Symposium: Papers Infection Control Nurses 1979.
150. H. Gaya Is it necessary for staff and visitors in an intensive care unit to wear masks, hats, gowns and overshoes? J Hosp Infect 1 1980 369 371
151. F.D. Daschner Useful and useless hygienic techniques in intensive care units Intensive Care Med 11 1985 280 283 (Pubitemid 16199147)
152. S.D. Elek, and P.E. Conen The virulence of Staphylococcus pyogenes for man; a study of the problems of wound infection Br J Exp Pathol 38 1957 573 586
153. C. Flugge Die Verbreitung der Phthise durch staubformiges Sputum und durch beim Husten verspritzte Tropfchen Z Hyg InfektKr 30 1899 107
154. R. Hare The transmission of respiratory infections Proc R Soc Med 57 1964 221 230
155. Y. Ohara-Nemoto, H. Haraga, S. Kimura, and T.K. Nemoto Occurrence of staphylococci in the oral cavities of healthy adults and nasal oral trafficking of the bacteria J Med Microbiol 57 2008 95 99
156. A.J. Mangram, T.C. Horan, M.L. Pearson, L.C. Silver, and W.R. Jarvis Guideline for prevention of surgical site infection, 1999: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee Am J Infect Control 27 1999 96 134
157. J. Granville-Chapman, and R.L. Dunne Excuse me! BMJ 335 2007 1293