Urban green uses: The new renewal

Planning and Environmental Law

Volumn 63, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 3-13

  LaCroix, Catherine J ^a  

^a Maastricht University   (United States)

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EID: 79954502496     PISSN: 15480755     EISSN: 15568601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15480755.2011.579524     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. Marc Lefkowitz, Cleveland's Comeback: Reimagining the City from the Ground Up, NEXT AMERICAN CITY; available at http://american city.org/magazine/article/clevelands-comeback (for a discussion of community involvement in Cleveland).
2. Cleveland Land Lab, Re-Imagining a More Sustainable Cleveland: Citywide Strategies for Reuse of Vacant Land (2008), available at http://reimaginingcleveland.org/about/links-and-resources (hereinafter Re-Imagining).
3. Re-Imagining was prepared by a coalition including the Cleveland City Planning Commission, the Cleveland Land Lab at the Cleveland Urban Design Collaborative of Kent State University, and a nonprofit organization, Neighborhood Progress, Inc., with financial support from the Surdna Foundation. A follow-up report was recently issued to offer specific suggestions for vacant land strategies, Kent State University's Cleveland Urban Design Collaborative and Neighborhood Progress, Inc., The Ideas to Action Resource Book 2011 (available at the same site, http://reimaginingcleveland.org/ about/links-and-resources; hereinafter, Ideas to Action).
4. See http://planning.city.cleveland.oh.us/cwp/contents.html for the current Cleveland City Plan.
5. Presentation of Robert N. Brown, Cleveland City Planning Commission, at the 2010 Reclaiming Vacant Properties conference in Cleveland, October 13-15, 2010. See http://www. communityprogress.net/2010-reclaiming-vacant-properties-conference-pages-82.php.
6. Re-Imagining, at 9 (figure 7). Each of the remediation techniques is a way to use natural processes to clean up mildly contaminated sites. Bioremediation uses microbes in soil and groundwater; phytoremediation and mycoremediation work in the same way, using plants and fungi.
7. Re-Imagining at 24.
8. Re-Imagining. at 9 Figure 7.
9. Re-Imagining at 5.
10. Re-Imagining
11. Much energy behind the Re-Imagining initiative comes from the local food movement. See, e.g., Marc Lefkowitz, Filling in the Local Food Gap, GREENCITYBLUELAKE (Aug. 11, 2010), http://www.gcbl.org/blog/marc-lefkowitz/filling-local-food-gap. Updates on the Re-Imagining projects are available at http:// reimaginingcleveland.org.
12. Marc Lefkowitz, Cleveland's Comeback: Reimagining the City from the Ground Up, NEXT AMERICAN CITY; available at http://american city.org/magazine/article/clevelands-comeback (for a discussion of community involvement in Cleveland).
13. http://www.evergreencoop.com/GreenCity/greencity.html.
14. Marc Lefkowitz, Cleveland Botanical Garden Will Plant $167K into Regional Green Infrastructure, GREENCITYBLUELAKE (Jan. 25, 2011), at http://www.gcbl.org/blog/marc-lefkowitz/cleveland-botanical-garden-will-plant-167k-regional-green-infrastructure.
15. Many strategies were on display at the 2010 Reclaiming Vacant Properties conference held in Cleveland from October 13 to 15, 2010. See http://www.communityprogress.net/2010-reclaiming-vacant-properties-conference-pages-82.php.
16. For a description of urban agriculture zones in the small group of cities that have taken this step, see Mukherji & Morales, Zoning for Urban Agriculture, ZONING PRACTICE (March 2010).
17. See, generally The City of Youngstown 2010 Citywide Plan (2005), available at http://www.cityofyoungstownoh.com/ about_youngstown/youngstown_2010/plan/plan.aspx.
18. See also Christine McDonald and Mike Wilkinson, City Begins Crafting Plan to Downsize, DETROIT NEWS, Feb. 20, 2010, at A1 (discussing Mayor Bing's consideration of downsizing). In Detroit, there is also a grassroots pattern of suburbanization, as remaining home owners acquire adjacent lots for home and garden expansion.
19. Tobias Amborst, et al., Improve Your Lot/ in CITIES GROWING SMALLER 47 (2008).
20. See also David Streitfeld, An Effort to Save Flint, Mich., by Shrinking It, N.Y. TIMES, April 21, 2009, http://www.nytimes. com/2009/04/22/business/22flint.html?ref=davidstreitfeld (discussing comparable efforts in Flint, Michigan).
21. Suzette Hackney, Bing Staff Backs Off Talk About Downsizing Detroit, DETROIT FREE PRESS, Apr. 29, 2010, at A8, available at http://www.freep.com/article/20100429/NEWS05/4290435/ Bing-staff-backs-off-talk-about-downsizing-Detroit.
22. Thomas J. Fitzpatrick IV, Understanding Ohio's Land Bank Legislation, FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF CLEVELAND POLICY DISCUSSION PAPERS (January 2009), available at http://www.clevelandfed.org/ Research/PolicyDis/pdp25.pdf.
23. See also Frank S. Alexander, Revitalizing Community Assets: Louisiana Land Reform in the Storms' Aftermath, 53 LOY. L. REV. 727, 752-755 (2007).
24. Samsa, Reclaiming Abandoned Properties: Using Public Nuisance Suits and Land Banks to Pursue Economic Redevelopment, 56 CLEV. ST. L. REV. 189, 213-214 (2008).
25. Frank S. Alexander, Revitalizing Community Assets: Louisiana Land Reform in the Storms' Aftermath, 53 LOY. L. REV. 727, at 755. (2007)
26. See ZONING & PLANNING DESKBOOK § 16:5 (2d ed.) (citing need for statutory authorization).
27. An excellent history of land banks and discussion of the forms of land banks and considerations in establishing one can be found in Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING 140 (2005).
28. Current strategies for land banking were presented at the Reclaiming Vacant Properties Conference in Cleveland in 2010. See http://www.communityprogress.net/2010-reclaiming-vacant-properties-conference-pages-82.php.
29. One land bank, in Genesee County, was initially established without express statutory authorization, using other mechanisms existing under Michigan law, but the state subsequently adopted additional land bank legislation. Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING, at 150.
30. One land bank, in Genesee County, was initially established without express statutory authorization, using other mechanisms existing under Michigan law, but the state subsequently adopted additional land bank legislation. Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING 140 (2005) at 147-148.
31. Thomas J. Fitzpatrick IV, Understanding Ohio's Land Bank Legislation, FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF CLEVELAND POLICY DISCUSSION PAPERS (January 2009), available at http://www.clevelandfed.org/ Research/PolicyDis/pdp25.pdf., at 2-3
32. Oh. Rev. Code §§ 5722.01(F) & 5722.02(A) (land bank may acquire "nonproductive land"). The land bank program is housed in the Department of Community Development, Real Estate Division. There is a separate bank of industrial and commercial properties in the Department of Economic Development.
33. The ravages of the foreclosure crisis are detailed in Alex Kotlowitz, All Boarded Up, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 8, 2009, at MM28. For an excellent history of the impact of questionable mortgage lending practices and their resulting waves of foreclosures
34. see Kermit J. Lind, The Perfect Storm: An Eyewitness Report from Ground Zero in Cleveland's Neighborhoods, 17 J. AFFORDABLE HOUSING & COMMUNITY DEV. L. 237 (2008).
35. Ohio Rev. Code §§ 321.261 & 321.341 (funding), 1724.01, 1724.02, 1724.04 & 1724.10. See generally, http://www.cuyahoga landbank.org/about.php.
36. See http://www.cuyahogalandbank.org.
37. For an excellent comparison of the Cleveland City land bank with the Cuyahoga County land bank, Thomas J. Fitzpatrick IV, Understanding Ohio's Land Bank Legislation, FEDERAL RESERVE BANK OF CLEVELAND POLICY DISCUSSION PAPERS (January 2009), available at http://www.clevelandfed.org/ Research/PolicyDis/pdp25.pdf.
38. Ohio Rev. Code § 5722.02(D).
39. Ohio Rev. Code § 5722.22.
40. 42 U.S.C. § 9607(a).
41. 42 U.S.C. §§ 9601(20)(D), 9601(35)(A)(ii).
42. Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING, at 147.
43. Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING at 148-149.
44. Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING at 149.
45. Frank S. Alexander, Land Bank Strategies for Renewing Urban Land, 14 JOURNAL OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING at 149-150.
46. One issue that has not been fully explored is the extent to which an aggressive land bank strategy might run afoul of the Fifth Amendment. It is possible that an owner who loses his land to tax foreclosure could argue that the land bank's land-acquisition process fails to satisfy due process or amounts to a taking of private property for public use without just compensation being paid. This possibility must be kept in mind when structuring land bank legislation.
47. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances chapter 337.02, 337.23, 337.25 (effective November 3, 2010, Ordinance 814-10).
48. Cleveland, Ohio, Codifed Ordinances chapter 347.02. For a detailed look at legal requirements governing backyard chickens, see Patricia Salkin, Feeding the Locavores, One Chicken at a Time, ZONING AND PLANNING LAW REPORT (March 2011), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers. cfm?abstract_id=1774023.
49. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances chapter 354A.
50. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances chapter 337.25.
51. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances chapter 337.25.
52. Cleveland, Ohio Codified Ordinances chapter 336.03, 336.04(b) & (c).
53. Cleveland, Ohio Codified Ordinances chapter 336.03, 336.04.
54. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances 336.01.
55. Re-Imagining, at 26-29.
56. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances chapter 354A.
57. Berman v. Parker, 348 U.S. 26, 33 (1954).
58. For example, the Ohio Power Siting Board has adopted rules for siting wind farms. See http://www.opsb.ohio.gov/opsb.
59. JULIAN CONRAD JUERGENSMEYER & THOMAS E. ROBERTS, LAND USE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT REGULATION LAW at § 4.31, page 118 (2d ed. 2007) ("zoning ordinances almost universally permit nonconforming uses to continue").
60. Palazzolo v. Rhode Island, 533 U.S. 606, 630 (2001).
61. Palazzolo v. Rhode Island, 533 U.S. 606, at 620-621.
62. The Court did not identify the precise point at which the plaintiff's claim ripened. See Palazzolo v. Rhode Island, 533 U.S. 606, at 619-621.
63. Palazzolo v. Rhode Island, 533 U.S. 606, at 627.
64. The Federal Circuit recently rejected a claim of regulatory taking when the restriction at issue was imposed (and it concluded, presented a ripe claim) before the plaintiff took title to the land (CRV Enterprises, Inc. v. United States, 626 F.3d 1241 (Fed. Cir. 2010).
65. Similarly, the Ninth Circuit concluded that a facial challenge to a restriction-that is, one that does not depend on seeking a variance or other type of administrative permission before presenting the claim-ripens when the restrictions are imposed and cannot be raised by a subsequent purchaser. Guggenheim v. Goleta, 2010 U.S. App. LEXIS 25981 at *19 (9th Cir. 2010).
66. In that case, the dissent observed that this holding is inconsistent with Palazzolo. Guggenheim v. Goleta, 2010 U.S. App. LEXIS 25981 at *44-*45.
67. The majority noted that a subsequent owner could bring an "as applied" challenge to the restrictions at some point in the future. Guggenheim v. Goleta, 2010 U.S. App. LEXIS 25981 at *20.
68. 438 U.S. 104 (1978).
69. 438 U.S. at 124.
70. See Catherine LaCroix, Urban Agriculture and Other Green Uses: Remaking the Shrinking City, 42 THE URBAN LAWYER 225, 250-273 (2010).
71. For an example of a local market for local foods, see Debbi Snook, Case Western Reserve University Dining Hall Serves Comfort Food Locally Sourced and Made from Scratch, CLEVELAND PLAIN DEALER, Feb. 15, 2011, available at http://www. cleveland.com/taste/index.ssf/2011/02/case_western_reserve_ universit.html.
72. See also, An urban greenhouse is planned in Cleveland, http://www.evergreencoop.com/GreenCity/greencity. html. There are many examples of the vitality of the urban farming and community garden community in Cleveland.
73. See, e.g., Local Food Cleveland, http://www.localfoodcleveland. org and the site of one urban farmer, http://thegardenlifeandtimes ofjustinhusher.blogspot.com/. The Re-Imagining project is working on other innovative ideas, such as using the foundations of demolished houses to support greenhouses or food storage. Ideas to Action at 30 ("Bio-Cellar") (2011). Hantz Farms in Detroit is one example of a proposed urban farm, http://www. hantzfarmsdetroit.com.
74. The Ninth Circuit's decision in Guggenheim v. Goleta suggests an additional defense: the existence of restrictive zoning when a person acquires property shows that the owner has suffered no loss. "The price they paid for the property. doubtless reflected the burden of the restriction they would have to suffer, " 2010 U.S. App. LEXIS 25981 at *23.
75. The Guggenheim dissent asserts that this "impermissibly picks out only one of the three factors the Court has told us to consider under. Penn Central " "The price they paid for the property. doubtless reflected the burden of the restriction they would have to suffer, " 2010 U.S. App. LEXIS 25981 at *33
76. Referring to Penn Central Transp. Co. v. New York City, 438 U.S. 104 (1978). In the majority's defense, the court might have concluded that the lack of "investment backed expectations"-the term used in Penn Central-was so significant as to make further analysis unnecessary, although the opinion does not say so.
77. Tex. Gov't Code Ann. § 2007.002(5)(B) (compensation required if government regulation reduces property value by 25 percent or more)
78. Fla. Stat. Ann. § 70.001 (regulations that impose an "inordinate burden" are a taking).
79. See also La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 3:3610
80. Miss. Code Ann. § 49-33-9.
81. John D. Echeverria and Thekla Hansen-Young, The Track Record on Takings Legislation: Lessons from Democracy's Laboratories, 28 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 439 (2009).
82. "The Florida and Oregon property rights laws have made it essentially impossible for government to regulate land uses unless it is willing to pay regulated owners. Because government officials have proven unable or unwilling to make such payments, the takings laws have effectively neutered the law-making process in relation to land use. " John D. Echeverria and Thekla Hansen-Young, The Track Record on Takings Legislation: Lessons from Democracy's Laboratories, 28 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. at 446.
83. Lucas v. S.C. Coastal Council, 505 U.S. 1003 (1992).
84. For a reference to the vexing question of how to address a restriction affecting only part of a parcel, see Palazzolo, 533 U.S. at 631.
85. JULIAN CONRAD JUERGENSMEYER & THOMAS E. ROBERTS, LAND USE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT REGULATION LAW at §5.10, p. 148.
86. An equal protection argument might gain greater weight if a plaintiff can allege and show a racial motivation in selecting a particular parcel of land, thereby triggering strict scrutiny of the classification. JULIAN CONRAD JUERGENSMEYER & THOMAS E. ROBERTS, LAND USE PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT REGULATION LAW § 10.14. A, p. 466.
87. DANIEL MANDELKER, LAND USE LAW at §4.01 & 4.05 (5th Ed. 2003).
88. The Restatement of Torts defines private nuisance as "a non-trespassory invasion of another's interest in the private use and enjoyment of land. " AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, RESTATEMENT OF TORTS (Second) § 821D (1978).
89. In order to be actionable, the invasion must be either "intentional and unreasonable; or unintentional and otherwise actionable under the rules governing liability for negligent, reckless or ultrahazardous conduct. " AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, RESTATEMENT OF TORTS (Second) at § 822.
90. AMERICAN LAW INSTITUTE, RESTATEMENT OF TORTS (Second) at § 4.10.
91. All of the discussion that follows refers to Cleveland, Ohio Codified Ordinances Chapter 347.02.
92. All of the discussion that follows refers to Cleveland, Ohio Codified Ordinances Chapter 347.02.
93. Cleveland, Ohio, Codified Ordinances 354A.04(b)(2), 354A.05(a), (c) & (d).
94. See Marc Lefkowitz, Cleveland Adds Another Six-Acre Urban Incubator Farm, GREENCITYBLUELAKE (October 27, 2010), http:// www.gcbl.org/blog/marc-lefkowitz/cleveland-adds-another-six-acre-urban-incubator-farm, and http://www.evergreencoop.com/ GreenCity/greencity.html.
95. Youngstown's city plan notes that "Not all infrastructure can be maintained and not all neighborhoods can be returned to their past sustainability. " generally The City of Youngstown 2010 Citywide Plan (2005), available at http://www.cityofyoungstownoh.com/ about_youngstown/youngstown_2010/plan/plan.aspx., at 37.
96. The current plan reallocates uses: Some abandoned areas of housing and unnecessary commercial zones are redesignated "industrial green"-a new category of "nonpolluting environmentally friendly" industrial use. The City of Youngstown 2010 Citywide Plan (2005), available at http://www.cityofyoungstownoh.com/ about_youngstown/youngstown_2010/plan/plan.aspx., at 49-51.
97. The current plan reallocates uses: Some abandoned areas of housing and unnecessary commercial zones are redesignated "industrial green"-a new category of "nonpolluting environmentally friendly" industrial use. The City of Youngstown 2010 Citywide Plan (2005), available at http://www.cityofyoungstownoh.com/ about_youngstown/youngstown_2010/plan/plan.aspx., at 14.
98. Suzette Hackney, Bing, Strategy, Plan for Detroit is in the Works, DETROIT FREE PRESS, May 12, 2010, available at http:// www.freep.com/article/20100512/NEWS06/5120305
99. See also David Streitfeld, An Effort to Save Flint, Mich., by Shrinking It, N.Y. TIMES, April 21, 2009, http://www.nytimes. com/2009/04/22/business/22flint.html?ref=davidstreitfeld (discussing comparable efforts in Flint, Michigan), at A12 (discussing comparable efforts in Flint, Michigan).
100. A municipality might have such an obligation if a resident seeks services and there is no practical reason why service would not be available. See, e.g., Clark v. Bd. of Water and Sewer Comm'rs, 234 N.E.2d 893 (Mass. 1968).
101. Sunset Cay, LLC v. City of Folly Beach, 357 S.C. 414, 426, 393 S.E.2d 462 (S.C. 2004).
102. E.g., Ohio Rev. Code § 715.06 (light, power, and heat), § 715.08 (water supply), §717.01 (general powers).
103. The situation appears to be somewhat different in the case of annexation and deannexation. An annexing city might have a duty to provide services to the area it annexes. E.g., City of Rockport v. City of Malvern, 356 Ark. 393 155 S.W.3d 9 (Ark. 2004)
104. N.C. Gen. Stat. § 160A-47, and areas that do not receive services may petition for deannexation. E.g., Hickory Lane Land and Dev. Co. v. Vill. of Novi, 372 Mich. 219
105. 125 N.W.2d 487 (Mich. 1964). In general, deannexation seems to be an option only for tracts of land at the municipal borders, which can then seek to be part of an adjoining municipality or perhaps remain under county jurisdiction. See, e.g., 65 I.L.C.S. §§ 5/7-3-1 5/7-3-6 (disconnection from municipality only if area to be disconnected is at the municipal boundary) (Illinois).
106. Perazzo v. Lindsay, 290 N.Y.S. 2d 971, 972 (N.Y. App. Div. 1968)
107. Aff'd, 244 N.E. 2d 471 (N.Y. 1968).
108. The debate over eminent domain for economic development has prompted interesting ideas concerning alternatives to condemnation. See, e.g., Michael Heller & Rick Hills, Land Assembly Districts, 121 HARV. L. REV. 1465 (2008). These are beyond the scope of this commentary.
109. U.S. Const. Amendment V.
110. Kelo v. City of New London, 545 U.S. 469 (2005).
111. 348 U.S. 26 (1954).
112. 348 U.S. at 33.
113. Kelo, 545 U.S. at 482.
114. See John J. Costonis, New Orleans, Katrina, and Kelo: American Cities in the Post-Kelo Era, 83 TUL. L. REV. 395, 412-420 (2008). For a web link tracking some post-Kelo legislation, see http://www.ncsl.org/IssuesResearch/ EnvironmentandNaturalResources/EminentDomainmainpage/ tabid/13252/Default.aspx.
115. E.g., Pa. Cons. Stat. Ann. §§ 204(a), 205 (barring eminent domain for economic development but authorizing for blight removal)
116. Ohio Rev. Code Ann. §717.01 (including language barring taking for economic development without a demonstration of blight)
117. Norwood v. Horney, 853 N.E. 2d 1115 (Ohio 2006) (economic benefit alone does not satisfy public use requirement).
118. Harris K. Weiner, Eminent Domain and Economic Development: Rhode Island General Assembly Addresses Kelo v. City of New London, 57 R.I. BAR JNL. 13, 16 (2008).
119. Rhode Island adopted legislation requiring that just compensation be set at 150 percent of fair market value for an economic development taking. Harris K. Weiner, Eminent Domain and Economic Development: Rhode Island General Assembly Addresses Kelo v. City of New London, 57 R.I. BAR JNL. at 44.
120. http://www.cuyahogalandbank.org/properties.php (3804 Archwood Ave.).
121. See Beckman, The Wholesale Decommissioning of Vacant Urban Neighborhoods: Smart Decline, Public-Purpose Takings, and the Legality of Shrinking Cities, 58 CLEV. ST. L. REV. 387, 455-457 (2010).
122. See, e.g., STUART MECK, ED., GROWING SMART LEGISLATIVE GUIDEBOOK (2002 Edition) (Amer. Planning Ass'n).
123. This phrase is used by Terry Schwarz, a leading proponent of the Re-Imagining approach, http://www.cudc.kent.edu/a-WhoWeAre/whoweare3.html.
124. The Nature Conservancy's website is found at http://www. nature.org. A comparable organization serving Northeast Ohio is the Western Reserve Land Conservancy, http://www.wrland-conservancy.org. The Trust for Public Land is found at http:// www.tpl.org.
125. http://www.plantabillion.org.
126. John Nolon has contributed to the dialogue in these pages. See John R. Nolon, Climate Change and Sustainable Development: the Quest for Green Communities, 61 PLANNING & ENVTL. L. (October 2009)
127. John R. Nolon & Patricia E. Salkin, Integrating Sustainable Development Planning and Climate Change Management: A Challenge to Planners and Land Use Attorneys, PLANNING & ENVTL. L. (March 2011).
128. See also Catherine LaCroix, SEPAs, Climate Change, and Corporate Responsibility: The Contribution of Local Government, 58 CASE WESTERN RESERVE L. REV. 1289 (2008).
129. ICLEI-LOCAL GOVERNMENTS FOR SUSTAINABILITY et al., eds. U.S. MAYORS' CLIMATE ACTION AGREEMENT: CLIMATE ACTION HANDBOOK, available at http://www.iclei.org/documents/USA/documents/CCP/ Climate_Action_Handbook-0906.pdf.
130. See, e.g., Carmen Gonzales, Climate Change, Food Security, and Agrobiodiversity: Toward a Just, Resilient, and Sustainable Food System (2011), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract_id=1756914.
131. See http://portal.cleveland-oh.gov/CityofCleveland/Home/ Government/CityAgencies/PublicUtilities/Sustainability?_piref34_ 138416_34_138357_138357.