Gold and governance: Legal injustices and lost opportunities in Tanzania

African Affairs

Volumn 110, Issue 439, 2011, Pages 233-252

  Lange, Siri ^a  

^a CHR MICHELSEN INSTITUTE   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL WORKER; DEMOCRACY; ECONOMIC GROWTH; GOLD MINE; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; LEGAL SYSTEM; MINING; SMALLHOLDER; WORLD BANK;

TANZANIA;

EID: 79953765280     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: 14682621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/adr003     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Bonnie Campbell, 'Factoring in governance is not enough: mining codes in Africa, policy reform and corporate responsibility', Minerals and Energy - Raw Materials Report 18, 3 (2003), p. 4.
2. Abraham Kumah, 'Sustainability and gold mining in the developing world', Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 3-4 (2006), pp. 317-18.
3. Scott Pegg, 'Mining and poverty reduction: transforming rhetoric into reality', Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 3-4 (2006), p. 379.
4. Chris Ballard and Glenn Banks, 'Resource wars: the anthropology of mining', Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), pp. 287-313.
5. Fieldwork was conducted in the period May to September 2004, for three weeks. Dr Flora Musonda took part in the planning of the fieldwork, while research assistants Monica Kimaro and Godwill Wanga accompanied the author in the field. For a complete list of interviews, please see Siri Lange, 'Benefit streams from mining in Tanzania: case studies from Geita and Mererani' (Report, Chr. Michelsen Institute, Bergen, in cooperation with ESRF, 2006). The field visit was funded by the World Bank, as part of the Bank's initiative to build capacity in natural resources governance and benefit streams management in selected African and Asian countries. Informants clearly saw the research team as an opportunity to get their voices heard, and acknowledged the fact that we represented independent research institutions from Norway and Tanzania, not the World Bank. The case study from Kahama is based on secondary sources.
6. Anthony Bebbington, Leonith Hinojosa, Denise Humphreys Bebbington, Maria Luisa Burneo, and Ximena Warnaars, 'Contention and ambiguity: mining and the possibilities of development', Development and Change 39, 6 (2008), p. 892.
7. Michael Lewin Ross, 'Does oil hinder democracy?', World Politics 53, 3 (2001), pp. 325-61.
8. Richard M. Auty, 'Social sustainability in mineral-driven development', Journal of International Development 10, 4 (1998), p. 494.
9. Bebbington et al., 'Contention and ambiguity', p. 909.
10. World Bank, Striking a Better Balance: The extractive industries review (World Bank, Washington, 2003).
11. Pegg, 'Mining and poverty reduction'.
12. Bebbington et al., 'Contention and ambiguity', p. 909.
13. Anthony Oliver-Smith, 'Development-forced displacement and resettlement: a global human rights crisis' in Anthony Oliver-Smith (ed.), Development and Dispossession: The crisis of forced displacement and resettlement (School for Advanced Research, Santa Fe, 2009), p. 3.
14. Susanna Price, 'Prologue: victims or partners? The social perspective in development-induced displacement and resettlement', Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 10, 4 (2009), p. 272.
15. S. M. Banchirigah, 'How have reforms fuelled the expansion of artisanal mining? Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa', Resources Policy 31, 3 (2006), pp.165-71.
16. Oliver-Smith, 'Development-forced displacement', p. 3.
17. Price, 'Prologue: victims or partners?', p. 272.
18. Theodore E. Downing, 'Avoiding new poverty: mining-induced displacement and resettlement' (Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Report No. 58, International Institute for Environment and Development and World Business Council for Sustainable Development, London and Geneva, 2002), p. 6.
19. World Bank, 'Operational Policy 4.12 Involuntary Resettlement' (World Bank, Washington DC, 2007).
20. Pegg, 'Mining and poverty reduction', pp. 385-6.
21. Oliver-Smith, 'Development-forced displacement and resettlement', p. 10.
22. J. S. Andrew, 'Potential application of mediation to land use conflicts in small-scale mining', Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2 (2003), p. 119.
23. Banchirigah, 'How have reforms fuelled the expansion of artisanal mining?', p. 19.
24. K. Kulindwa, O. Mashindano, F. Shechambo, and H. Sosovele, Mining for Sustainable Development in Tanzania (Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam, 2003), p. 60-1.
25. Paula Butler, 'Tanzania: liberalisation of investment and the mining sector. Analysis of the content and certain implications of the Tanzania 1998 Mining Act', in Bonnie Campbell (ed.), Regulating Mining in Africa: For whose benefit? (Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, 2004), p. 68.
26. Tanzania Chamber of Minerals and Energy. 'Incentives and achievements - the effects of policy changes', (28 September).
27. 'Tanzania Mining Report Q2 2010', Business Monitor International, 7 April 2010, p. 46, (28 October 2010).
28. Gavin Hilson, 'An overview of land use conflicts in mining communities', Land Use Policy 19, 1 (2002), p. 68.
29. Lange, 'Benefit streams', p. 11.
30. Tanzania Chamber of Minerals and Energy, 'Incentives and achievements'.
31. OECD, 'Development Co-Operation Directorate. Information by country'. (12 October 2010).
32. Rodgers Luhwango, 'Mining bill raises storm,' Guardian on Sunday, Dar es Salaam, (30 May 2010).
33. Polycarp Machira, 'I will revoke mining contracts if elected President, Slaa vows', This Day, (7 October 2010).
34. 'Corrupt politicians behind chaos at mines - Mengi', Guardian, Dar es Salaam, (28 March 2010).
35. Michael Bradburn-Ruster, 'A golden example of globalization: Bulyanhulu, the World Bank and the kinder, gentler president', (20 June 2007), p. 3.
36. M. Curtis and T. Lissu, 'A golden opportunity? How Tanzania is failing to benefit from gold mining. Second Edition' (Report, Christian Council of Tanzania, National Council of Muslims in Tanzania and Tanzania Episcopal Conference, Dar es Salaam, 2008), p. 35.
37. Peter Tindwa, 'Mining contracts not for public consumption - Yona', The Guardian, Dar es Salaam, 1 October 2003.
38. Wanzala Pius Nambiza, 'Whose development counts? Political ecology of displacement of Bulyanhulu mining community in Tanzania' (MA Dissertation, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 2007), p. 3.
39. Tanzania Investment Centre (TIC), 'Land acquisition', (31 June 2010).
40. Government of Tanzania, Village Land Act 1999, 18 (1).
41. Katherine Homewood, Ernestina Coast, and Michael Thompson, 'In-migrants and exclusion in East African rangelands: access, tenure and conflict', Africa 74, 4 (2004), p. 600.
42. Bureau of economic, energy and business affairs, US Department of State, 'Investment climate statement - Tanzania', (31 May 2010).
43. Rie Odgaard, 'Scrambling for land in Tanzania: process of formalisation and legitimisation of land rights' in T. A. Benjaminsen and C. Lund (eds), Securing Land Rights in Africa (Frank Cass, London and Portland, OR, 2002), p. 73.
44. Issa G. Shivji and Marc Wuyts, 'Reflections: interview with Issa Shivji by Marc Wuyts', Development and Change 39, 6 (2008), pp. 1079-90.
45. United Republic of Tanzania, 'The Law Reform Commission of Tanzania: Position paper on the legal framework for the development of the mining industry', (URT, Dodoma, 2001), p. 27.
46. Kulindwa et al., Mining for Sustainable Development in Tanzania, p. 912.
47. Calculated from numbers and maps available at (6 October 2010).
48. The violent clashes that have taken place appears to have been related to a general frustration with large-scale mining. In 2008, for example, approximately 4,000 villagers raided the North Mara gold mine and destroyed equipment worth US$16 million. The purpose of the raid was to access the open pit deposits and steal gold ore.
49. See 'Tanzania: villagers storm Barrick gold mine: inflict much damage, FFU police deployed to disperse them', This Day, (19 October 2010).
50. Leander Schneider, 'High on modernity? Explaining the failings of Tanzanian villagisation', African Studies 66, 1 (2007), p. 12.
51. Nambiza, 'Whose development counts?'.
52. Geir Sundet, 'The 1999 Land Act and Village Land Act: a technical analysis of the practical implications of the acts', (Research on Poverty Alleviation, Dar es Salaam, 2005), p. 8.
53. Government of Tanzania, Mining Act 1998, 14, s. 4.
54. Sundet, 'The 1999 Land Act and Village Land Act', p. 8.
55. Nambiza, 'Whose development counts?'.
56. Liz Alden Wily, 'Community-based land tenure management: questions and answers about Tanzania's new Village Land Act, 1999', (Issue Paper No. 120, International Institute for Environment and Development, London, 2003).
57. Government of Tanzania, Mining Act 1998, 118, 2.101 (1).
58. Chachage Seithy L. Chachage, 'New forms of accumulation in Tanzania: the case of gold mining', in Peter Gibbon (ed.), Mining and Structural Adjustment (Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, 1993).
59. Nambiza, 'Whose development counts?', pp. 49-50.
60. Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, 'Kahama Mining Corporation Limited', (21 December 2011).
61. International Finance Corporation, Compliance Advisor Ombudsman (CAO), 'Tanzania/Bulyanhulu Project-01/Kankola', (13 January 2010).
62. International Finance Corporation, Compliance Advisor Ombudsman (CAO), 'Assessment report summary: complaint regarding Miga's guarantee of the Bulyanhulu gold mine, Tanzania', (20 October 2006), p. 8.
63. Nambiza, 'Whose development counts?', p. 83.
64. The official compensation rates for one hectare of rice, maize, or cassava were US$84, 59, and 29 respectively in the period 1992-8.
65. Bradburn-Ruster, 'A golden example of globalization', p. 3.
66. CAO, 'Assessment report summary', p. 8.
67. Bradburn-Ruster, 'A golden example of globalization', p. 3.
68. Nambiza, 'Whose development counts?', p. 77.
69. Finnigan wa Simbeye, 'Barrick and Tanzania government muzzling evidence on Bulyanhulu murders', 'The Perspective' (website), 7 May 2002, (20 June 2007).
70. Bretton Woods Project. 'Tanzanian authorities attempt to silence activists on Bulyanhulu case', (30 November 2010).
71. AngloGold Ashanti, 'Information on the company', (10 February 2009).
72. Gavin Hilson and N. Yakovleva, 'Strained relations: a critical analysis of the mining conflict in Prestea, Ghana', Political Geography 26, 1 (2007), p. 411.
73. 'Tanzania to probe gold scam', AllAfrica.com, (20 October 2006).
74. Danielle Knight, 'Tanzanian gold mine polluting causing deaths', (20 October 2004).
75. 'Tanzania to Probe Gold Scam', AllAfrica.com.
76. Interview, Donald E. Mremi, Geita, 21 May 2004.
77. Siri Lange and Ivar Kolstad, 'Corporate community involvement and local institutions: two case studies from the mining industry in Tanzania', unpublished draft MS.
78. Government of Tanzania, Mining Act 1998, 113 s. 96 (1).
79. Interviews with Thobias Ikangala, ward executive officer of Rwamgaza ward, Rwamgaza, 22 May 2004, and Elias M. Kapula, councillor of Rwamgaza ward, Rwamgaza, 24 May 2004.
80. Group interview with fourteen holders of Primary Mining Licences (PMLs), members of Mwanza Regional Miners Association (MWAREMA), Nyarugusu village branch, Nyarugusu, 25 May 2004.
81. O. L. Sangale, O. M. Nessele, and P. Mrosso, 'The 2002/3 Tanzania participatory poverty assessment: site report for Loiborsoit village, Simanjiro District, Manyara Region' (Economic and Social Research Foundation, Dar es Salaam, 2002).
82. F. K. Bee, M. L. N. Diyamett, and E. Towo, 'Challenges to traditional livelihoods and newly emerging employment patterns of pastoralists in Tanzania' (Report, International Labour Organization, ILO-INDISCO, Geneva, 2002).
83. Letter made available to the author by Soipei Lenganasa, 29 May 2004.
84. Participation by invitation in a meeting held by thirteen affected cattle owners, Lendanai, 30 May 2004. The purpose of the meeting was to plan joint action against the mining company.
85. E-mail and phone correspondence with Soipei Lenganasa, 25 October 2007.
86. Generally, junior companies have a poorer reputation in terms of community relations and respect for local decision-making processes than large companies.
87. (Bebbington et al., 'Contention and ambiguity', p. 900).
88. This is true in Tanzania.
89. Terry Karl, 'Ensuring fairness: the case for a transparent fiscal contract' in M. Humphreys, J. Sachs and J. Stiglitz (eds), Escaping the Resource Curse (Columbia University Press, New York, NY, 2007), pp. 256-85.
90. Quoted in Bebbington et al., 'Contention and ambiguity', p. 895.
91. OECD, 'Development Cooperation Directorate: information by country'.
92. Jan Speed, 'Zambias Skattekrig', Bistandsaktuelt 7, 4-6 (2010).
93. Odd-Helge Fjeldstad, Chr. Michelsen Institute, personal communication (11 October 2010).