Entry into international society reconceptualised: The case of Russia

Review of International Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 463-484

  Neumann, Iver B ^a  

^a NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS NUPI   (Norway)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 79953068909     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: 14699044     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210510000756     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Hedley Bull and Adam Watson (eds), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984).
2. David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986), p. 141;
3. Charles J. Halperin, 'Muscovite Political Institutions in the 14th Century', Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, New Series, 1:2 (2000), pp. 237-57.
4. Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society. A Study of Order in World Politics (London: Macmillan, 1977), pp. 9-10, 13.
5. Iver B. Neumann and Jennifer M. Welsh, 'The Other in European Self-Definition. A Critical Addendum to the Literature on International Society', Review of International Studies, 17:4 (1991), pp. 327-48. The theoretical inspiration for that attack was the post-structural conceptualisation of identity, where the key point is that any identity is predicated on delineation from something outside itself. The corollary is that the outside is constitutive of identity.
6. 'The greater the cultural unity of a states-system, the greater its sense of distinctness from the surrounding world is likely to be'; Martin Wight (ed. Hedley Bull), Systems of States (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1977), p. 34.
7. Bull and Watson, Expansion.
8. Edward Keene, Beyond the Anarchical Society: Grotius, Colonialism and Order in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
9. Comp. Garrit W. Gong, The Standard of 'Civilization' in International Society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984a).
10. Paul Keal, European Conquest and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: The Moral Backwardness of International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003);
11. also Roger Epp, 'The English School on the Frontiers of International Society: A Hermeneutic Approach', Review of International Studies, 24:5 (1998), pp. 47-63.
12. James Mayall, Nationalism and International Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 151;
13. Alan James, 'System or Society', Review of International Studies, 19:3 (1993), pp. 269-88;
14. Barry Buzan, 'From International System to International Society: Structural Realism and Regime Theory Meet the English School', International Organization, 47:3 (1993), pp. 327-52.
15. Barry Buzan, From International to World Society: English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
16. Wight, Systems, p. 28
17. comp. Shogo Suzuki 'Japan's Socialization into Janus-Faced European International Society', European Journal of International Relations, 11:1 (2005), pp. 137-64, on p. 156. International society is conceived as being an anarchical society. as Durkheim pointed out, however, societies are despotic, in the sense that they lay down what should count as normal behaviour and so may be seen as a structure of power (systems are arrangements through which values are authoritatively allocated for a society, as Easton would have it). The tension between anarchy on the one hand and society on the other is the constitutive tension of the School. By dint of an internal logical, then, the Grotian tradition seems to be the broad home for the School itself. (Pubitemid 40427642)
18. Andrew Linklater and Hidemi Suganami, The English School of International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 189-222. For them, however, this should preferably be a typically modernist and historiosophical undertaking sketching 'long-term historical processes in which visions of the unity of the human race influence the development of the states-system', p. 190.
19. Adam Watson, The Evolution of International Society: A Comparative Historical Analysis (London: Routledge, 1992).
20. Barry Buzan and Richard Little, International Systems in World History: Remaking the Study of International Relations (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
21. Bull and Watson, Expansion.
22. For China, see Yongjin Zhang, 'China's Entry into International Society: Beyond the Standard of "Civilization"', Review of International Studies, 17:1 (1991), pp. 3-16.
23. For Russia, see Iver B. Neumann, Russia and the idea of Europe: A Study in Identity and International Relations (London: Routledge 1996)
24. and Uses of the Other: 'The East' in European Identity Formation (Minneapolis, MN.: University of Minnesota Press, 1999).
25. For Greece, see Yannis A. Stivachtis, The Enlargement of International Society: Culture versus Anarchy and Greece's Entry into International Society (London: Macmillan, 1998).
26. For Japan, see Suzuki, Japan's Socialisation.
27. See also Paul Sharp 'Mullah Zaeef and Taliban diplomacy: An English School Approach', Review of International Studies, 29:4 (2003), pp. 481-98.
28. Jacintha O'Hagan, Conceptualizing the West in International Relations: From Spengler to Said (London: Palgrave, 2002), p. 129.
29. Tim Dunne, Inventing International Society: A History of the English School (London: Macmillan, 1998).
30. Pierre Nora, (ed. Lawrence D. Kritzman), Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, Three Vols. (New York, NY: Columbia University Press [1984] 1996-1998);
31. Maurice Halbwachs, The Collective Memory New York, NY: Harper & Row, [1950] 1980).
32. For an overview of work within IR, see Duncan Bell (ed.), Memory. Trauma and World Politics: Reflections on the Relationship Between Past and Present (Houndsmills: Palgrave, 2009) and works quoted therein.
33. Edmund Leach, Political Systems of Highland Burma: A Study of Kachin Structure (London: Athlone, 1954).
34. Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People Without History (Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press, 1982).
35. Johannes Fabian, Time and the Other (New York, NY.: Columbia University Press, 1983).
36. Adam Watson, 'Russia and the European States System', in Hedley Bull & Adam Watson (eds), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984), pp. 61-74, on p. 61.
37. But comp. Buzan & Little, International Systems.
38. Watson, Expansion, pp. 61-2, 17.
39. Garrit W. Gong, 'China's Entry into International Society', in Hedley Bull & Adam Watson (eds), The Expansion of International Society (Oxford: Clarendon, 1984b). pp. 171-84, on p. 180.
40. Within the discipline, the first call to arms for such an approach was Patrick T. Jackson and Daniel H. Nexon, 'Relations before States: Substance, Process and the Study of World Politics', European Journal of International Relations, 5:3 (1999), pp. 291-332.
41. The prerequisite is that it does not come out of a situation of non-system, as it were of a high degree of isolation.
42. Marshall Sahlins, Historical Metaphors and Mythical Realities. Structure in the Early History of the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann Arbor, MI.: University of Michigan Press, 1981).
43. Dale C. Copeland, The Origins of Major Wars (Ithaca, NY.: Cornell University Press, 2000).
44. Wight, Systems.
45. John L. I. Fennell, The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200-1304 (London: Longman, 1983), pp. 17-9.
46. Fennell, Crisis, pp. 27, 34, 73-75.
47. Thomas T. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism. The Politics of the Great Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251-1259 (Berkeley, CA.: University of California Press, 1987), p. 5.
48. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, p. 42.
49. Igor de Rachewiltz, Papal Envoys to the Great Khans (London: Faber & Faber, 1971), p. 104.
50. Thomas Barfield, The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
51. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, p. 101.
52. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, pp. 80-1.
53. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, p. 45.
54. A correspondence is often assumed between the four sons and the subsequent Mongol-led polities in China, Persia, Central Asia and Russia, but as argued in Peter Jackson, 'From Ulus to Khanate: the Making of the Mongol States, c. 1220-c. 1290', pp. 12-37
55. in Reuven Amitai-Preiss & David Morgan (eds), The Mongol Empire and its Legacy (Leiden: Brill, 1999), pp. 12-37, this is too neat.
56. Morgan, The Mongols, p. 82.
57. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, pp. 62-3.
58. The Golden Horde had been in dynastic crisis since the death of Khan Berdibeg in 1359, one reason being the swelling of the numbers of the Golden Kin, see Berthold Spuler, Die Goldene Horde: Die Mongolen in Russland 1223-1502, vol. two (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1965). The object of the invasion was Khan Tokhtamesh (1376-1395), a previous protégé of Tamerlane's who succeeded in uniting the Golden Horde with the White Horde to its east. The White Horde had been established by the same Mongol campaign that spied out the Russian lands in 1223.
59. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, p. 114.
60. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism, p. 124.
61. comp. Peter Jackson, The Mongols and the West, 1221-1410 (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2005.
62. Halperin, C[harles] J. Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History (Bloomington, IN.: Indiana University Press), 1985, p. 33.
63. Fennell, Crisis, p. 108.
64. The Nogay, named after the Mongol Nogay Khan, based in the Caucasus around present-day Kalmykia and harbouring a number of Khipchaks, were at loggerheads with the rest of the Golden Horde in the 1290s, and established themselves as a khanate in 1319. They 'built a power base in the Crimea and the Balkans and contested with the khans of the lower Volga for control of the Golden Horde', Halperin, Russian and The Golden Horde, p. 18.
65. The two other cities to be ruled by Grand Dukes, Nizhniy Novgorod and Ryazan', came up short on both counts.
66. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 58.
67. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 51.
68. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 54.
69. for details, see George Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia. A History of Russia, vol. III (New Haven, CN.: Yale University Press, 1953), p. 207.
70. Comp. Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia, p. 264.
71. Andreas Kappeler, The Russian Empire: A Multiethnic History (London: Longman, 2001).
72. Fennell, Crisis, p. 122, note 15.
73. Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia, p. 196.
74. Fennell, Crisis, p. 89.
75. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 81.
76. John Meyerdorff, Byzantium and the Rise of Russia. A Study of Byzantine-Russian Relations in the Fourteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
77. Marshall T. Poe, 'A People Born to Slavery': Russia in Early European Ethnography, 1476-1748 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), pp. 12-3.
78. Already in 1481, Emperor Frederick III addressed an appeal on behalf of the Germans in Livonia to Poland and Lithuania, Sweden and the Hanseatic Cities about this polity.
79. V. A. Zorin, et al. (eds), Istoriya diplomatii, second ed. (Moscow: Gospolitizdat, 1959), p. 262.
80. Iver B. Neumann, 'Russia's Standing as a Great Power, 1492-1815', in Ted Hopf (ed.), Russia's European Choices (New York, NY.: Palgrave, 2008), pp. 13-24.
81. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 8, comp. p. 63.
82. Michael Cherniavsky, 'Khan or Basileus: An Aspect of Russian Medieval Political Theory', in Michael Cherniavsky (ed.), The Structure of Russian History (New York, NY.: Random House, [1959] 1970), pp. 195-211.
83. Russian borrowings from the Mongols were extensive, see Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia, pp. 127-30, 222-3, 333-90;
84. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, pp. 90-5, 149, n. 7
85. and, for maximalist readings, Donald G. Ostrowski, Muscovy and the Mongols. Cross-Cultural Influences on the Steppe Frontier, 1304-1589 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
86. and 'Muscovite Adaptation of Steppe Political Institutions: A Reply to Halperin's Objections', Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, New Series, 1:2 (1998), pp. 267-97.
87. The alternative is to postulate a universal animus diominandi whereby all polities would aim for the top.
88. Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia, p. 296.
89. Jaroslaw Pelenski, 'Muscovite Imperial Claims to the Kazan Khanate', Slavic Review, 26:4 (1967), pp. 559-76.
90. Leo de Hartog, Russia and the Mongol Yoke: The History of the Russian Principalities and the Golden Horde, 1221-1502 (London: I. B. Tauris, 1995).
91. Kappeler, Russian Empire, p. 26.
92. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 92.
93. As late as the seventeenth century, the emigré Muscovite bureaucrat Gregorii Kotoshikin explained that the ruler of Muscovy was a tsar 'by virtue of Ivan IV's conquest of Kazan';
94. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 100.
95. Halperin, Russia and the Golden Horde, p. 13.
96. Zorin, Istoriya diplomatii, p. 140.
97. Neumann, Uses of the Other.