The hate crime project and its limitations: Evaluating the societal gains and risk in bias crime law enforcement

Social Consciousness in Legal Decision Making: Psychological Perspectives

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 209-226

  Lawrence, Frederick M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 79952956736     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-46218-9_11     Document Type: Chapter

References (52)

1. See also Frederick M. Lawrence, Punishing Hate: Bias Crimes Under American Law 11-20 (1999
2. See Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003)
3. Alexander Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, at 103 (1962
4. See, e.g., Harburg et al., Socio-Ecological Stress, Suppressed Hostility, Skin Color, and Black-White Male Blood Pressure: Detroit, 35 PSYCHOSOMATIC MEDICINE, 276, 292-294 (1973
5. Kenneth Clark, Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power, 82-90 (1965
6. See, e.g., Irwin Katz, Stigma: A Social Psychological Analysis (1981
7. Harry H. L. Kitano, Race Relations, 125-126 (1974
8. Kiev, Psychiatric Disorders in Minority Groups, PSYCHOLOGY AND RACE, 416, 420-424
9. Allport, Nature of Prejudice, 56-59 (discussing the degrees of prejudicial action from "antilocution," to discrimination, to violence
10. Lawrence, Punishing Hate, 39-41.
11. See, e.g., Martha Minow, Making All the Difference: Inclusion, Exclusion, and American Law, 221 (1990) (stating the importance of empathy in combating discrimination in the United States
12. See, e.g., Robert Elias, The Politics of Victimization, 116 (1986
13. A. Karmen, Crime Victims: An Introduction to Victimology, 262-263 (2d ed., 1990
14. Jack Levin and Jack McDevitt, Hate Crimes: The Rising Tide of Bigotry and Bloodshed, 205, 220-221, 234 (1993
15. E.g., Andrew Hacker, Two Nations, Black and White, Separate, Hostile, Unequal, 4-6 (1992
16. Jennifer L. Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class and the Soul of the Nation (1996
17. James Jacobs & Kimberly Potter, Hate Crimes: Criminal Law and Identity Politics (1998
18. See Lawrence, Punishing Hate, at 17-20;
19. Jacobs & Potter, Hate Crimes, at 132-134.
20. Jacobs & Potter, Hate Crimes, at 130-132, 137-144.
21. Jacobs & Potter, Hate Crimes, at 134.
22. See, e.g., David E. Bernstein, Defending the First Amendment from Antidiscrimination Laws, 82 N.C. L. REV. 223, 240-41 (2003
23. Susan Gellman, Hate Speech and a New View of the First Amendment, 24 CAP. U. L. REV. 309 (1995
24. Robert A. Sedler, The Unconstitutionality of Campus Bans on "Racist Speech:" The View from Without and from Within, 53 U. PITT. L. REV. 631, 683 (1992
25. SUSAN Gellman, Sticks and Stones Can Put You in Jail, but Can Words Increase Your Sentence? Constitutional and Policy Dilemmas of Ethnic Intimidation Laws, 39 U.C.L.A. L. REV. 333 (1991
26. See Frederick M. Lawrence, The Hate Crimes/Hate Speech Paradox: Punishing Bias Crimes and Protecting Racist Speech, 68 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 673 (1993
27. See Joel Feinberg, Offense to Others 25-49 (1985
28. The description of the disproportionate enforcement of bias crimes laws is a condensed version of Frederick M. Lawrence, Enforcing Bias-Crime Laws Without Bias: Evaluating the Disproportionate-Enforcement Critique, LAW AND CONTEMP. PROB., Summer 2003, at 49 2003
29. See, e.g., Jacobs & Potter, Hate Crimes and Identity Politics.
30. James Jacobs "Rethinking the War Against Hate Crimes: A New York City Perspective" in CRIM. JUST. ETH. 55, 60 (Summer/Fall 1992
31. James Weinstein "First Amendment Challenges to Hate Crime Legislation: Where's the Speech?" in CRIM. JUST. ETH. 6, 17 (Summer/Fall 1992
32. Shirley Abrahamson, et al., Words and Sentences, Penalty Enhancement For Hate Crimes," 16 U. ARK. LITTLE ROCK L.J. 515, 525 and n. 38 (1994
33. See 485 N.W.2d, 807, 818 (Wisc. 1992) (Abrahamson, J., dissenting), reversed, 508 U.S. 476 (1993
34. 485 N.W.2d at 818.
35. Abrahamson, Words and Sentences, Penalty Enhancement For Hate Crimes, 16 U. ARK. LITTLE ROCK L.J. at 525-526.
36. Martha Minow, "Regulating Hatred: Whose Speech, Whose Crimes, Whose Power?" in Breaking The Cycles of Hatred: Memory, Law, and Repair 31, 41 (2002
37. see Lawrence, Enforcing Bias-Crime Laws Without Bias, LAW AND CONTEMP. PROB., Summer 2003, at 60-61.
38. Heidi Hurd and Michael S. Moore, Punishing Hatred and Prejudice, 56 STAN. L. REV. 1081 (2004
39. See Susan B. Gellman and Frederick M. Lawrence, Agreeing to Agree: A Proponent of Hate Crime Laws Reach for Agreement, 41 HARV. J. ON LEGIS. 421 (2004
40. See, e.g., Martha Minow, Breaking the Cycles of Hatred: Memory, Law and Repair 48 (2002)
41. Lawrence, Punishing Hate, at 12-14, 39-44, 58-63.
42. Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. 343 (2003
43. Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. at 349.
44. 262 Va. 764
45. 553 S.E. 2d 738 (2001
46. See Virginia v. Black, 538 U.S. at 364-367
47. O'Connor, J., plurality); 538 U.S. at 384-387 (Souter, J., concurring in judgment and dissenting in part
48. See Lawrence, Enforcing Bias-Crime Laws Without Bias, LAW AND CONTEMP. PROB., Summer 2003, at 55-60.
49. Lawrence, Enforcing Bias Crimes Laws Without Bias: Evaluating the Disproportionate Enforcement Critique, LAW AND CONTEMP. PROB., Summer 2003, at 55-60.
50. See, e.g., Emile Durkheim, The Division of Labor in Society 62-63 (W. D. Hall trans., Free Press 1984
51. Robert Reiner, Crime, Law and Deviance: The Durkheim Legacy, in Steve Fenton, Durkheim and Modern Sociology, 176-182 (1984
52. Joel Feinberg, The Expressive Function in Punishment, in Joel Feinberg, Doing and Deserving, 103-104 (1970).