From aging to pathology: The case of osteoporosis

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 66, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 1-39

  Grob, Gerald N ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aging and pathology; Expansion of diagnostic boundaries; Gender; Menopause; Osteopenia; Osteoporosis; T score

Indexed keywords

BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CONJUGATED ESTROGEN; ESTROGEN;

AGE; AGING; ARTICLE; BONE DENSITY; DRUG EFFECT; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MALE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; METABOLIC BONE DISEASE; OSTEOPOROSIS; PATHOLOGY; RISK FACTOR; SEX DIFFERENCE; UNITED STATES;

AGE FACTORS; AGING; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; BONE DENSITY; BONE DISEASES, METABOLIC; DIPHOSPHONATES; ESTROGENS; ESTROGENS, CONJUGATED (USP); FEMALE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 21ST CENTURY; HUMANS; MALE; OSTEOPOROSIS; RISK FACTORS; SEX FACTORS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 79952853542     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: 14684373     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/jrq011     Document Type: Article

References (213)

1. Attitudes toward aging can be followed in David H. Fischer, Growing Old in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977)
2. W. Andrew Achenbaum, Old Age in the New Land: The American Experience since 1790 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978)
3. Carole Haber, Beyond Sixty-Five: The Dilemma of Old Age in America's Past (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983)
4. Carole Haber and Brian Gratton, Old Age and the Search for Security: An American Social History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994)
5. Thomas R. Cole, The Journey of Life: A Cultural History of Aging in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992)
6. Stephen Katz, Disciplining Old Age: The Formation of Gerontological Knowledge (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996).
7. John Howship, "Microscopic Observations of the Structure of Bone," Med. Chir. Soc. London, 1816, 7, 387-403
8. Observations on the Morbid Structure of Bones, and Attempt at an Arrangement of Their Diseases," Med. Chir. Soc. London, 1817, 8, 57-107
9. Daniel Schapira and C. Schapira, "Osteoporosis: The Evolution of a Scientific Term," Osteoporos. Int., 1992, 2, 164-67
10. Astley Cooper, A Treatise on Dislocations and Fractures of the Joints (Original ed. 1822: 2nd American ed. from 6th London ed.: Boston: Lilly & Wait, 1832), 129. For a brief survey of the historical understanding of bones from Biblical times to the mid-twentieth century
11. see Donald H. Enlow, Principles of Bone Remodeling (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1963), 3-22.
12. Cf. Dr. Bennett, "Senile Osteoporosis," Dublin J. Med. Sci., 1878, 3rd ser., 66, 272-74.
13. William Osler, The Principles and Practice of Medicine (New York: D. Appleton, 1892: 4th ed., 1901; 6th ed., 1906)
14. Henry A. Christian, The Principles and Practice of Medicine, 15th ed. (New York: Appleton-Century, 1944), 1202-8
15. Logan Clendening, Modern Methods of Treatment (St. Louis: C.V. Mosby, 1924).
16. Journal of the History of Medicine : Vol. 66, January 2011 Downloaded from jhmas.oxfordjournals.org at SCOPUS EFLOWD on March 16, 2011
17. Ernst Lachman and Mary Whelan, "The Roentgen Diagnosis of Osteoporosis and Its Limitations," Radiology, 1936, 26, 165-77.
18. See also Lachman, "Osteoporosis: The Potentialities and Limitations of the Roentgenologic Diagnosis," Am. J. Roentgenol., 1955, 74, 712-15.
19. Joseph P. Weimann and Harry Sicher, Bone and Bones: Fundamentals of Bone Biology (St. Louis: C.V. Mosby Co., 1947), 303-4 (2nd ed.: 1955), 328-29.
20. Cf. Oscar Riddle and W. H. Reinhart, "Studies on Physiology of Reproduction in Birds: Blood Calcium Changes in Reproductive Cycle," Am. J. Physiol., 1926, 76, 660-76
21. W. U. Gardner and C. A. Pfeiffer, "Skeletal Changes in Mice Receiving Estrogens," Proc. Exper. Biol. Med., 1938, 27,678-79.
22. C. A. Pfeiffer and W. U. Gardner, "Skeletal Changes and Blood Serum Calcium Level in Pigeons Receiving Estrogens," Endocrinology, 1938, 23, 485-95
23. W. U. Gardner and C. A. Pfeiffer, "Influence of Estrogens and Androgens on the Skeletal System," Physiol. Rev., 1943, 23, 139-65.
24. The discussion in this paragraph is based on Ludmilla Jordanova, Sexual Visions: Images of Gender in Science and Medicine between the Eighteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989)
25. Margaret Lock, Encounters with Aging: Mythologies of Menopause in Japan and North America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993
26. Robert T. Frank, "Treatment of Disorders of the Menopause," Bull. N.Y. Acad. Med., 1941, 17, 854-63.
27. The history of estrogen therapy is authoritatively covered in Elizabeth S. Watkins, The Estrogen Elixir: A History of Hormone Replacement in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
28. For Albright's career, see Alex Leaf, "Fuller Albright 1900-1969," Nat. Acad. Sci.. Mem., 1976, 48, 3-22;
29. Theodore H. Schwartz, "How to Learn from Patients: Fuller Albright's Exploration of Adrenal Function," Ann. Intern. Med., 1995, 123, 2225-29.
30. Fuller Albright, Esther Bloomberg, and Patricia H. Smith, "Post-Menopausal Osteoporosis," Trans. Assoc. Amer. Physicians, 1940, 55, 298-305
31. Fuller Albright, Patricia H. Smith, and Anna Richardson, "Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: Its Clinical Features," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1941, 116, 2465-74
32. F. Albright ,Osteoporosis Ann. Intern. Med. 1947, 27, 861-882
33. See also Gilbert S. Gordan, "Fuller Albright and Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: A Personal Appreciation," Perspect. Biol. Med., 1981, 24, 547-60
34. Ann P. Forbes, "Fuller Albright: His Concept of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis and What Came of It," Clin. Orthop., 1991, 269, 128-41.
35. Edward C. Reifenstein and Fuller Albright, "The Metabolic Effects of Steroid Hormones in Osteoporosis," J. Clin. Invest., 1947, 26, 24-56
36. Albright and Reifenstein, The Parathyroid Glands and Disease: Selected Studies (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co., 1948), 145-204.
37. See Harold M. Frost, "The Evolution of Pathophysiologic Knowledge of Osteoporoses," Orthop. Clin. North Am., 1981, 12, 475-83. (Pubitemid 12225313)
38. Franklin C. McLean, "Calcified Tissue Research: 1967," Calcif. Tissue Res., 1967, 1, 1-7.
39. Franklin C. McLean and Marshall R. Urist, Bone: An Introduction to the Physiology of Skeletal Tissue, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 45, 57, 90.
40. Similar statements were repeated seven years later in Bone: Fundamentals of the Physiology of Skeletal Tissue, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), 56-71, 104.
41. McLean, "Calcified Tissue Research," 6.
42. Ernest Aegerter and John A. Kirkpatrick, Jr., Orthopedic Diseases: Physiology- Pathology-Radiology, 4th ed. (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1975), 331.
43. Harold M. Frost, "The Evolution of Pathophysiologic Knowledge of Osteoporoses" and "The Evolution of Osteoporosis Therapy," Orthop. Clin. North Am., 1981, 12, 475-83, 603-10. (Pubitemid 12225313)
44. Frost's works in the 1960s include Bone Remodeling Dynamics (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1963)
45. The Laws of Bone Structure (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964)
46. The Bone Dynamics in Osteoporosis and Osteomalacia (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1966)
47. Bone Remodeling and Its Relationship to Metabolic Bone Diseases (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1973).
48. The seminal article-R. Hattner, B. N. Epker, and H. M. Frost, "Suggested Sequential Mode of Control of Changes in Cell Behaviour in Adult Bone Remodelling," Nature, 1965, 206, 489-90-was reprinted as a Landmark piece (with an interview) in J. NIH Res., 1995, 7, 54-59.
49. R. E. Christopher Nordin, "The Application of Basic Science to Osteoporosis," in Bone Biodynamics, ed. Harold M. Frost (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1964), 521-42.
50. See also Marshall R. Urist, "Observations Bearing on the Problem of Osteoporosis," in Bone as a Tissue, ed.
51. Kaare Rodahl, Jesse T. Nicholson, and Ernst M. Brown (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1960), 18-44.
52. Ernst Lachman, "The Normal Radiology of Old Age and Its Borderlines," J. Okla. State. Med. Assoc., 1960, 53, 87.
53. McLean and Urist, Bone, 3rd ed., 239-40.
54. Morris R. Urist et al., "Rarefying Disease of the Skeleton: Observations Dealing with Aged and Dead Bone in Patients with Osteoporosis," in Mechanisms of Hard Tissue Destruction, ed. Reidar F. Sognnaes (Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1963), 386-446.
55. G. Donald Whedon, "Symposium Comment," in Osteoporosis, ed. Uriel S. Barsel (New York: Grune & Stratton, 1970), 266.
56. H. F. Newton-Jones and D. B. Morgan, "Osteoporosis: Disease or Senescence?" Lancet, 1968, 1, 232-33.
57. Gilbert S. Gorson and Cynthia Vaughan, Clinical Management of the Osteoporoses (Acton, Massachusetts: Publishing Science Group, 1974), 43, 48-73.
58. Stanley N. Garn, Andrew E. Poznanski, and Jerrold M. Nagy, "Bone Measurement in the Differential Diagnosis of Osteopenia and Osteoporosis," Diagn. Radiol., 1971, 100, 509-18.
59. Watkins, The Estrogen Elixir, 172.
60. See especially Sheila M. Rothman and David J. Rothman, The Pursuit of Perfection: The Promise and Perils of Medical Enhancement (New York: Pantheon Books, 2003).
61. and Peter Conrad, The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
62. See Patricia A. Kaufert and Penny Gilbert, "Women, Menopause, and Medicalization," Cult. Med. Psychiatry, 1986, 10, 7-21.
63. Lock, Encounters with Aging; Watkins, The Estrogen Elixir; and Ray Moynihan, Iona Heath, and David Henry, "Selling Sickness: The Pharmaceutical Industry and Disease Mongering," Br. Med. J., 2002, 324, 887.
64. Moynihan, Heath, and Henry, "Selling Sickness," 886-91.
65. Marcia Angell, "Industry-Sponsored Clinical Research: A Broken System," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2008, 300, 1069-71.
66. Joseph S. Ross et al., "Guest Authorship and Ghostwriting in Publications Related to Rofecoxib: A Case Study of Industry Documents from Rofecoxib Litigation," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2008, 299, 1800-12. (Pubitemid 351549971)
67. Catherine D. DeAngelis and Phil B. Fontanarosa, "Impugning the Integrity of Medical Science: The Adverse Effects of Industry Influence," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2008, 299, 1833-35. (Pubitemid 351549977)
68. Marcia Angell, The Truth about the Drug Companies: How They Deceive Us and What to Do about It (New York: Random House, 2004).
69. Jacob A. Brody et al., "Absence of Menopausal Effect on Hip Fracture Occurrence in White Females," Am. J. Public Health, 1984, 74, 1397.
70. Watkins, The Estrogen Elixir, 25, 67, 83.
71. Mariamne H. Whatley and Nancy Worcester, "The Role of Technology in the Co-optation of the Women's Health Movement: The Cases of Osteoporosis and Breast Cancer Screening," in Healing Technology: Feminist Perspectives, ed. Kathryn S. Ratcliff (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989), 199-220, 204.
72. "Osteoporosis," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1984, 252, 799-802.
73. Watkins, The Estrogen Elixir, 164-65.
74. National Osteoporosis Foundation, accessed 28 July 2009, at http://www.nof.org/ anoutnof/founding.htm.
75. Olli Simonen, "Osteoporosis: A Big Challenge to Public Health," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1986, 39, 295-96. (Pubitemid 16008944)
76. Takuo Fujita, "Calcium and Aging," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1985, 37, 1-2.
77. B. E. C. Nordin, "The Definition and Diagnosis of Osteoporosis," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1987, 40, 57-58. (Pubitemid 17227506)
78. L. Joseph Melton and Heinz W. Wahner, "Defining Osteoporosis," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1989, 45, 263-64. (Pubitemid 19271416)
79. Some articles in this journal published in the 1980s include Christopher Elias, Robert P. Heaney, and Robert R. Recker, "Placebo Therapy for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1985, 37, 6-13. (Pubitemid 15102229)
80. James M. Burnell et al., "The Role of Skeletal Calcium Deficiency in Postmenopausal Osteoporosis," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1986, 38, 187-92 (Pubitemid 16137011)
81. Karl J. Obrant et al., "Increasing Age-Adjusted Risk of Fragility Fractures: A Sign of Increasing Osteoporosis in Successive Generations?," Calcif. Tissue Int., 1989, 44, 157-67. (Pubitemid 19076622)
82. "Clinical Indications for Bone Mass Measurements," J. Bone Miner. Res., 1989, 4, Suppl. 2, 1-29 (quotation on 5).
83. Watkins, The Estrogen Elixir, 202.
84. Louis V. Avioli, ed., The Osteoporotic Syndrome: Detection, Prevention, and Treatment (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1983; 2nd ed.: Orlando, 1987.
85. 3rd ed: New York, Wiley-Liss, 1993).
86. B. Lawrence Riggs and L. Joseph Melton, III, eds., Osteoporosis: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Management (New York: Raven Press, 1988).
87. For the rising concern in osteoporosis in medical journals.
88. see the following: Robert R. Recker, "Continuous Treatment of Osteoporosis: Current Status," Orthop. Clin. North Am., 1981, 12, 611-27. (Pubitemid 12225320)
89. Anthony D. Woolf and Allan St. J. Dixon, "Osteoporosis: An Update on Management," Drugs, 1984, 28, 565-76.
90. B. Lawrence Riggs and L. Joseph Melton, III, "Evidence for Two Distinct Syndromes of Involutional Osteoporosis," Am. J. Med., 1983, 75, 899-901.
91. Joyce L. MacKinnon, "Osteoporosis: A Review," Phys. Ther., 1988, 68, 1533-40.
92. Robert Lindsey, "Osteoporosis: An Updated Approach to Prevention and Management," Geriatrics, 1989, 44, 45-54.
93. Ignac Fogelman, "An Evaluation of the Contribution of Bone Mass Management to Clinical Practice," Semin. Nucl. Med., 1989, 19, 62-68.
94. Bruce E. Johnson et al., "Contributing Diagnoses in Osteoporosis: The Value of a Complete Medical Evaluation," Arch. Intern. Med., 1989, 149, 1069-72. (Pubitemid 19131831)
95. Examples include Morris Notelovitz and Marsha Ware, Stand Tall!: The Informed Woman's Guide to Preventing Osteoporosis (Gainesville: Trian Publishing Co., 1982).
96. Winfred B. Cutler, Menopause: A Guide for Women and the Men Who Love Them (New York: Norton, 1983).
97. David F. Fardon, Osteoporosis: Your Head Start on the Prevention and Treatment of Brittle Bones (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1985).
98. Lila Nachtigall and Joan R. Heilman, Estrogen: The Facts Can Change Your Life (New York: Harper and Row, 1986).
99. Elizabeth S. Watkins has an illuminating analysis of this literature in The Estrogen Elixir, 167-86.
100. William A. Peck and Louis V. Avioli, Osteoporosis-The Silent Thief (Glenview, Illinois: Scott Foresman and Co. and the AARP, 1988), 115-17, 126.
101. Robert P. Heaney, "Osteoporosis at the End of the Century," West. J. Med., 1991, 154, 106-7.
102. Robert P. Heaney, "Osteoporosis at the End of the Century" West. J. Med., 1991, 154, 106-7.
103. The conference report, papers, and abstracts can be found in the following: "Consensus Development Conference: Prophylaxis and Treatment of Osteoporosis" Am. J. Med., 1991, 90, 107-10
104. "Proceedings of a Symposium: Consensus Development Conference on Osteoporosis" Am. J. Med., 1991, 91, Suppl. 5B, S1-S68
105. "Abstracts: Consensus Development Conference, 19-20 October 1990, Copenhagen, Denmark" Osteoporos. Int., 1991, 1, 118-26.
106. World Health Organization, Assessment of Fracture Risk and Its Application to Screening for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis, WHO Technical Report Series, No. 843 (Geneva: WHO, 1994), 5
107. J. A. Kanis and the WHO Study Group, "Assessment of Fracture Risk and Its Application to Screening for Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: Synopsis of a WHO Report" Osteoporos. Int., 1994, 4, 368-81
108. Harry K. Genant, "Interim Report and Recommendation of the World Health Organization Task-Force for Osteoporosis" Osteoporos. Int., 1999, 10, 259-64 (Pubitemid 29476187)
109. World Health Organization, Guidelines for Preclinical Evaluation and Clinical Trials in Osteoporosis (Geneva: World Health Organization, 1998)
110. H. Ringertz et al., "Bone Density Measurement: A Systematic Review. A Report from SBU, The Swedish Council on Technology Assessment in Health Care" J. Intern. Med., 1997, 24, Suppl. 739, i-iii, 1-60.
111. See also Kenneth G. Faulkner, "The Tale of the T-score: Review and Perspective" Osteoporos. Int., 2005, 16, 347-52. (Pubitemid 40487391)
112. See especially Jeremy A. Greene, Prescribing by Numbers: Drugs and the Definition of Disease (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).
113. Kanis et al., "Assessment of Fracture Risk" 374-77
114. World Health Organization, "Interim Report and Recommendations" 261-64.
115. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Effectiveness and Costs of Osteoporosis Screening and Hormone Replacement Therapy, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1995), I: 52-63.
116. "Consensus Development Statement: Who Are Candidates for Prevention and Treatment for Osteoporosis?" Osteoporos. Int., 1997, 7, 1-6
117. National Osteoporosis Foundation, "Osteoporosis: Review of the Evidence for Prevention, Diagnosis and Treatment and Cost-Effective Analysis" Osteoporos. Int., 1998, 8, Suppl. 4: S1-S80
118. National Osteoporosis Foundation, Physician's Guide to Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis (Washington, DC: National Osteoporosis Foundation, 1998).
119. Bernadine P. Healy, "Weak and Feeble Bones No More: The National Osteoporosis Foundation Speaks Out" J. Women's Health, 1998, 7, 1067-68.
120. Donna F. Heinemann, "Osteoporosis" Geriatrics, 2000, 55, 31-36
121. John A. Kanis, David Torgerson, and Cyrus Cooper, "Comparison of the European and USA Practice Guidelines for Osteoporosis" Trends Endocrinol. Metab., 2000, 11, 28-32. (Pubitemid 30395457)
122. G. P. Lyritis and the MEDOS Study Group, "Epidemiology of Hip Fracture: The MEDOS Study" Osteoporos. Int., 1996, 6, Suppl. 3, S11-S15
123. J. Reeve, "The European Prospective Osteoporosis Study" Osteoporos. Int., 1996, 6, Suppl. 3, S16-S19
124. F. H. Hoover et al., "The Global Longitudinal Study of Osteoporosis in Women (GLOW): Rationale and Study Design" Osteoporos. Int., 2009, 20, 1107-16.
125. Ethel Siris et al., "Design of NORA, the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment Program: A Longitdinal US Registry of Postmenopausal Women" Osteoporos. Int., 1998, 8, Suppl. 1, S62-S69 (Pubitemid 28230932)
126. Ethel Siris et al., "Identification and Fracture Outcomes of Undiagnosed Low Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Women: Results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment" J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2001, 286, 2815-22 (Pubitemid 33126923)
127. Charles H. Chestnut, III, "Osteoporosis: An Undiagnosed Disease" J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2001, 286, 2865-66.
128. E. Barrett-Connor, "Predictors of Falls among Postmenopausal Women: Results from the National Osteoporosis Risk Assessment (NORA)" Osteoporos. Int., 2009, 20, 715-22.
129. John A. Kanis, "Osteoporosis and Osteopenia" J. Bone Miner. Res., 1990, 5, 209-10
130. L. Joseph Melton, III, "A 'Gompertzian' View of Osteoporosis" Calcif. Tissue Int., 1990, 46, 285-86
131. Robert P. Heaney, "Bone Mass, Bone Fragility, and the Decision to Treat" J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1998, 280, 2119-20. (Pubitemid 29014073)
132. For examples of the range of views during the 1990s
133. see the following: B. Lawrence Riggs, "Overview of Osteoporosis" West. J. Med., 1991, 154, 63-77
134. Sherry Sherman and Evan C. Hadley, "Aging and Bone Quality: An Underexplored Frontier" Calcif. Tissue Int., 1993, 53, Suppl. 1, S1 (Pubitemid 23277158)
135. "Can We Make Osteoporosis a Disease of the Past? [Proceedings of the First International Conference organized in Paris, October, 1993, by the Health Council on Osteoporosis]" Osteoporos. Int., 1994, 4, Suppl. 1, S1-S76
136. Edward W. Gregg et al., "The Epidemiology of Quantitative Ultrasound: A Review of the Relationships with Bone Mass, Osteoporosis and Fracture Risk" Osteoporos. Int., 1997, 7, 89-99 (Pubitemid 27192384)
137. Harold M. Frost, "Defining Osteopenias and Osteoporoses: Another View (with Insights from a New Paradigm)" Bone, 1997, 20, 385-91
138. Harold M. Frost, "Osteoporoses: A Rationale for Further Definitions?" Calcif. Tissue Int., 1998, 62, 89-94 (Pubitemid 28086336)
139. Harold M. Frost, J. L. Ferretti, and W. S. S. Jee, "Perspectives: Some Roles of Mechanical Usage, Muscle Strength, and the Mechanostat in Skeletal Physiology, Disease, and Research" Calcif. Tissue Int., 1998, 62, 1-7
140. Harold M. Frost, "Changing Views about Osteoporoses' (a 1998 Overview)" Osteoporos. Int., 1999, 10, 345- 52.
141. Michael Kleerekoper, "The Epidemiology of Osteoporosis" in Osteoporosis: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Principles, ed. Clifford J. Rosen (Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press, 1996), 65-68, 65.
142. Robert Marcus, David Feldman, and Jennifer Kelsey, eds., Osteoporosis (San Diego: Academic Press, 1996: 2nd. ed.: 2 vols.: San Diego: Academic Press, 2001)
143. Robert Marcus, David Feldman, Dorothy A. Nelson, and Clifford J. Rosen, eds., Osteoporosis, 3rd ed., 2 vols. (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2008).
144. Examples include John C. Stevenson and Michael S. Marsh, An Atlas of Osteoporosis (New York: Parthenon Publishing Group, 1992)
145. Clifford J. Rosen, Julie Glowacki, and John P. Bilezikian, eds., The Aging Skeleton (San Diego: Academic Press, 1999)
146. Eric S. Orwoll, ed., Osteoporosis in Men: The Effects of Gender on Skeletal Health (San Diego: Academic Press, 1999)
147. Michael J. Econs, ed., The Genetics of Osteoporosis and Metabolic Bone Disease (Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press, 2000)
148. Janet D. Henderson and David Goltzman, The Osteoporosis Primer (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000)
149. Steven R. Cummings, Felicia Cosman, and Sophie A. Jamil, eds., Osteoporosis: An Evidence-Based Guide to Prevention and Management (Philadelphia: American College of Physicians, 2002).
150. Stephen Hodgson, ed., Mayo Clinic on Osteoporosis (Rochester, Minnesota: Mayo Clinic, 2003)
151. Juliet E. Compton and Clifford J. Rosen, Fast Facts: Osteoporosis, 5th ed. (Abingdon: Health Press, 2006); Stephen J. Morewitz, Chronic Diseases and Health Care: New Trends in Diabetes, Arthritis, Osteoporosis, Fibromyalgia, Low Back Pain, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer (New York: Springer, 2006).
152. Logan Clendening and Edward H. Hashinger, Methods of Treatment, 8th ed. (St. Louis: C.V. Mosby Co., 1943), 708-36
153. Logan Clendening and Edward H. Hashinger, Methods of Diagnosis (St. Louis: C.V. Mosby, 1947), 217-18
154. Henry A. Christian, The Principles and Practice of Medicine, 16th ed. (New York: Appleton-Century, 1947), 1202-11
155. A. McGehee Harvey et al., eds., The Principles and Practice of Medicine, 18th ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972), 948-53
156. A. Harvey McGehee et al., eds, The Principles and Practice of Medicine, 20th ed. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1980), 864-66
157. Tinsley R. Harrison et al., Principles of Internal Medicine (New York: Blakiston Co., 1950), 651-82
158. Robert Lindsey and Felicia Cosman, "Chapter 348: Osteoporosis," in Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, ed. Anthony S. Fauci et al., 17th ed. (New York: McGraw Hill, 2008), accessed 17 February 2010 at http://accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID+2903484.
159. "Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy," NIH Consensus Statement Online 2000 March 27-29 cited 15 August 2009
160. 17(1): 1-36. Accessed 18 February 2010 at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ bookshelf/br.fcgi?book=hsnihcdc&part=A20225.
161. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General (Rockville, Maryland: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General, 2004), passim.
162. P. D. Delmas, "Hormone Replacement Therapy in the Prevention and Treatment of Osteoporosis," Osteoporos. Int., 1997, 7, Suppl. 1, S3-S7.
163. Herbert Fleisch et al., "Diphosphonates inhibit Hydroxyapatite Dissolution in Vitro and Bone Resorption in Tissue Culture in Vivo," Science, 1969, 165, 1262-64.
164. See also Herbert Fleisch, "Bisphosphonates in Osteoporosis: An Introduction," Osteoporos. Int., 1993, 3, Suppl. 3, S3-S5.
165. Steven R. Cummings et al., "Effect of Alendronate on Risk of Fracture in Women with Low Bone Density but without Vertebral Fractures: Results from the Fracture Intervention Trial," J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1998, 280, 2077-82 (Pubitemid 29014065)
166. Uri A. Liberman et al., "Effect of Oral Alendronate on Bone Mineral Density and the Incidence of Fractures in Postmenopausal Osteoporosis," N. Engl. J. Med., 1995, 333, 1437-43
167. John A. Kanis et al., "Rationale for the Use of Alendronate in Osteoporosis," Osteoporos. Int., 1995, 5, 1-13.
168. See also P. Selby, "Alendronate Treatment for Osteoporosis, A Review of the Clinical Evidence," Osteoporos. Int., 1996, 6, 419-26 (Pubitemid 27007693)
169. John A. Kanis et al., "Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Osteoporosis," Osteoporos. Int., 1997, 7, 390-406 (Pubitemid 27346422)
170. P. J. Meunier et al., "Treatment of Postmenopausal Women with Osteoporosis or Low Bone Density with Raloxifene," Osteoporos. Int., 1999, 10, 330-36 (Pubitemid 29476199)
171. Huibert A. P. Pols et al., "Multinational, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of the Effects of Alendronate on Bone Density and Fracture Risk in Postmenopausal Women with Low Bone Density: Results of the FOSIT Study," Osteoporos. Int., 1999, 9, 481-68.
172. Dennis M. Black, "Once-Yearly Zoledronic Acid for Treatment of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis," N. Engl. J. Med., 2007, 356, 1809-22. (Pubitemid 46698462)
173. Black, "Once-Year Zoledronic Acid," 1815; Matthew C. Ferrugia et al., "Osteonecrosis of the Mandible or Maxilla Associated with the Use of New Generation Bisphosphonates," Laryngoscope, 2006, 116, 115-20.
174. Sundeep Khosla et al., "Bisphosphonte-Associated Osteonecrosis of the Jaw: Report of a Task Force of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research," J. Bone Miner. Res., 2007, 22, 1479-91. (Pubitemid 351229318)
175. Ethel S. Siris et al., "Effects of Risedronate on Fracture Risk in Postmenopausal Women with Osteopenia," Osteoporos. Int., 2008, 19, 681-86
176. Bodil Als-Nielson et al., "Association of Funding and Conclusions in Randomized Drug Trials: A Reflection of Treatment Effect or Adverse Events?" J. Am. Med. Assoc., 2003, 290, 921-28.
177. P. D. Delmas and M. Anderson, "Launch of the Bone and Joint Decade 2000-2010," Osteoporos. Int., 2000, 11, 95-97 (Pubitemid 30168793)
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