Who Is the Fairest One of All? How Evolution Guides Peer and Media Influences on Female Body Dissatisfaction

Review of General Psychology

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 11-28

  Ferguson, Christopher J ^a   Winegard, Benjamin ^b   Winegard, Bo M ^c  

^a Texas A and M International University   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

^c GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Body dissatisfaction; Eating disorders; Female sexuality; Mass media; Mate selection

Indexed keywords

EID: 79952490948     PISSN: 10892680     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0022607     Document Type: Article

References (262)

1. Abdollahi P., Mann T. Eating disorder symptoms and body image concerns in Iran: Comparisons between Iranian women in Iran and in America. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2001, 30:259-268.
2. Abed T.R. The sexual competition hypothesis for eating disorders. British Journal of Medical Psychology 1998, 71:525-547.
3. Definition of marketing 2007, American Marketing Association, Retrieved November 23, 2008, from http://www.marketingpower.com/AboutAMA/Pages/DefinitionofMarketing.aspx.
4. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 2000, American Psychiatric Association, Author, Washington, DC. 4th ed.
5. Report of the APA task force on the sexualization of girls 2007, American Psychological Association, Retrieved November 10, 2009, from http://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/sexualization_report_summary.pdf.
6. Anderson J.L., Crawford C.B., Nadeau J., Lindberg T. Was the Duchess of Windsor right? A cross-cultural review of the socioecology of ideals of female body shape. Ethology and Sociobiology 1992, 13:197-227.
7. Anderson-Fye E., Becker A. Socio-cultural aspects of eating disorders. Handbook of eating disorders and obesity 2004, 565-589. Wiley, New York, NY. J.K. Thompson (Ed.).
8. Apostolou M. Sexual selection under parental choice: The role of parents in the evolution of human mating. Evolution and Human Behavior 2007, 28:403-409.
9. Apostolou M. Sexual selection under parental choice in agropastoral societies. Evolution and Human Behavior 2010, 31:39-47.
10. Archer J., Coyne S.M. An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review 2005, 3:212-230.
11. Baker J.H., Maes H.H., Lissner L., Aggen S.H., Lichtenstein P., Kendler K.S. Genetic risk factors for disordered eating in adolescent males and females. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2009, 118:576-586.
12. Barber N. Secular changes in standards of bodily attractiveness in American women: Different masculine and feminine ideals. Journal of Psychology 1998, 132:87-94.
13. Baumeister R.F., Twenge J.M. Cultural suppression of female sexuality. Review of General Psychology 2002, 6:166-203.
14. Bearman S.K., Presnell K., Martinez E. The skinny on body dissatisfaction: A longitudinal study of adolescent girls and boys. Journal of Adolescence 2006, 35:217-229.
15. Becker A.E. Body, self, and society: The view from Fiji 1995, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA.
16. Becker A.E. Television, disordered eating, and young women in Fiji: Negotiating body image and identity during rapid social change. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 2005, 28:533-559.
17. Becker A.E., Burwell R.A., Gilman S.E., Herzog D.B., Hamburg P. Eating behaviours and attitudes following prolonged exposure to television among ethnic Fijian adolescent girls. British Journal of Psychiatry 2002, 180:509-514.
18. Becker A., Keel P., Anderson-Fye E., Thomas J. Genes and/or jeans? Genetic and socio-cultural contributions to risk for eating disorders. Journal of Addictive Diseases 2004, 23:81-103. doi: 10.1300/J069v23n03_07.
19. Bell R.M. Holy anorexia 1985, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
20. Bemporad J.R. Self-starvation through the ages: Reflections on the pre-history of Anorexia Nervosa. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1996, 19:217-237.
21. Benenson J.F., Hodgson L., Heath S., Welch P.J. Human sexual differences in the use of social ostracism as a competitive tactic. International Journal of Primatology 2008, 29:119-135.
22. Benensen J.F., Markovits H., Thompson M.E., Wrangham R.W. Strength determines coalitional strategies in humans. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2009, 276:2589-2595.
23. Berridge K.C. "Liking" and "wanting" food rewards: Brain substrates and roles in eating disorders. Physiology and Behavior 2009, 97:537-550.
24. Betzig L. Despotism and differential reproduction: A Darwinian view of history 1986, Aldine, New York, NY.
25. Birkeland R., Thompson J., Herbozo S. Media exposure, mood, and body image dissatisfaction: An experimental test of person versus product priming. Body Image 2005, 2:53-61.
26. Bissell K.L., Zhou P. Must-see TV or ESPN: Entertainment and sports media exposure and body-image distortion in college women. Journal of Communication 2004, 54:5-21.
27. Bjoerkqvist K. Sex differences in physical, verbal, and indirect aggression: A review of recent research. Sex Roles 1994, 30:177-188.
28. Blashill A.J. Gender roles, eating pathology, and body dissatisfaction in men: A meta-analysis. Body Image, 8 2011, 1-11.
29. Bleske-Rechek A., Lighthall M. Attractiveness and rivalry in women's friendships with women. Human Nature 2010, 21:82-97.
30. Bogle K.A. Hooking up: Sex, dating, and relationships on campus 2008, New York University Press, New York, NY.
31. Bray G.A. What is ideal body weight?. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 1998, 9:489-492.
32. Broude G.J., Greene S.J. Cross-cultural codes on husband-wife relationships. Ethnology 1983, 22:263-280.
33. Brown D.E. Human universals, human nature, & human culture. Daedalus 2004, 133:47-54.
34. Brown L. Girlfighting: Betrayal and rejection among girls 2003, New York University Press, New York, NY.
35. Brown P.J., Konner M. An anthropological perspective on obesity. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1987, 499:29-46.
36. Browne K. Co-ed combat: The new evidence that women shouldn't fight the nation's wars 2007, Sentinel, New York, NY.
37. Brumberg J.J. Fasting girls: The history of anorexia nervosa 2000, Vintage Books, New York, NY.
38. Bulik C.M., Slof-Op't Landt M.C.T., van Furth E.F., Sullivan P.F. The genetics of anorexia nervosa. Annual Review of Nutrition 2007, 27:263-275.
39. Bulik C.M., Sullivan P.F., Kendler K.S. Heritability of binge-eating and broadly defined bulimia nervosa. Biological Psychiatry 1998, 44:1210-1218.
40. Bulik C.M., Thornton L.M., Root T.L., Pisetsky E.M., Lichtenstein P., Pederson N.L. Understanding the relation between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa in a Swedish national twin study. Biological Psychiatry 2010, 67:71-77.
41. Buss A.H. The psychology of aggression 1961, Wiley, New York, NY.
42. Buss D.M. Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1989, 12:1-49.
43. Buss D.M. Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind 2008, Pearson, Boston, MA. 3rd ed.
44. Buss D.M., Dedden L.A. Derogation of competitors. Journal of Personal Relationships 1990, 7:395-422.
45. Buss D.M., Schmitt D.P. Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review 1993, 100:204-232.
46. Buss D.M., Shackelford T. Attractive women want it all: Good genes, economic investment, parenting proclivities, and emotional commitment. Evolutionary Psychology 2008, 6:134-146.
47. Buss D.M., Shackelford T.K., Choe J., Buunk B.P., Dijkstra P. Distress about mating rivals. Personal Relationships 2000, 7:235-243.
48. Buss D.M., Shackelford T.K., Kirkpatrick L.A., Larsen R.J. A half century of mate preferences: The cultural evolution of values. Journal of Marriage and the Family 2001, 63:491-503.
49. Campbell A. Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1999, 22:203-252.
50. Cashdan E. Waist-to-hip ration across cultures: Trade-offs between androgen and estrogen dependent traits. Current Anthropology 2008, 49:1099-1107.
51. Cecil D. From Heathers to Mean Girls: An examination of relational aggression in film. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture 2008, 15:262-276.
52. Chao A., Schor J.B. Empirical tests of status consumption: Evidence from women's cosmetics. Journal of Economic Psychology 1998, 19:107-131.
53. Cherlin A.J. American marriage in the early twenty-first century. Future of Children 2005, 15:33-56.
54. Chomsky N., Herman E. Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media 1988, Pantheon Books, New York, NY.
55. Christakis N.A., Fowler J.H. The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine 2007, 357:370-379.
56. Christakis N.A., Fowler J.H. The collective dynamics of smoking in a large social network. New England Journal of Medicine 2008, 358:2249-2258.
57. Clark L., Tiggemann M. Sociocultural and individual psychological predictors of body image in young girls: A prospective study. Developmental Psychology 2008, 44:1124-1134.
58. Cohen J. A power primer. Psychological Bulletin 1992, 112:155-159.
59. Cohn L.D., Adler N.E., Irwin C.E., Millstein S.G., Kegeles S.M., Stone G. Body-figure preferences in male and female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1987, 96:276-279.
60. Cornelissen P.L., Tovee M.J., Bateson M. Patterns of subcutaneous fat deposition and the relationship between body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio: Implications for models of physical attractiveness. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2009, 3:343-350.
61. Coyne S.M., Archer J., Eslea M. "We're not friends anymore!Unless...": The frequency and harmfulness of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Aggressive Behavior 2006, 32:294-307.
62. Crick N.R. Relational aggression: The role of intent attributions, feelings of distress, and provocation type. Development and Psychopathology 1995, 7:313-322.
63. Culbert K., Breedlove M., Burt S., Klump K. Prenatal hormone exposure and risk for eating disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 2008, 65:329-336.
64. Cusumano D., Thompson J. Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, awareness, and internalization. Sex Roles 1997, 37:701-721.
65. Dalley S., Buunk A., Umit T. Female body dissatisfaction after exposure to overweight and thin media images: The role of body mass index and neuroticism. Personality and Individual Differences 2009, 47:47-51.
66. Dawkins R., Krebs J.R. Arms races between and within species. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 1979, 205:489-511.
67. Dixson B., Dixson A., Li B., Anderson M. Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: Sexual preferences of men and women in China. American Journal of Human Biology 2007, 19:88-95. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.20584.
68. Dohnt H.K., Tiggemann M. Peer influences on body dissatisfaction and dieting awareness in young girls. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 2005, 23:103-116.
69. Dunbar R.I.M. Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1993, 18:681-735.
70. Durante K.M., Li N.P. Oestradiol level and opportunistic mating in women. Biology Letters 2009, 5:179-182.
71. Durkin S., Paxton S. Predictors of vulnerability to reduced body image satisfaction and psychological wellbeing in response to exposure to idealized female media images in adolescent girls. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2002, 53:995-1005.
72. Dwyer J.T., Feldman J.J., Seltzer C.C., Mayer J. Body image in adolescents: Attitudes toward weight and perception of appearance. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1969, 20:1045-1056.
73. Eagly A., Wood W. The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist 1999, 54:408-423.
74. Eder D. The cycle of popularity: Interpersonal relationships among female adolescents. Sociology of Education 1985, 58:154-165.
75. Ember C.R., Ember M.T., Korotayev A., de Munck V. Valuing thinness or fatness in women: Reevaluating the effect of resource scarcity. Evolution and Human Behavior 2005, 26:257-270.
76. Escobar-Chaves S.L., Tortolero S.R., Markham C.M., Low B.J., Eitel P., Thickstun P. Impact of the media on adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Pediatrics 2005, 116:303-326.
77. Etcoff N. Survival of the prettiest: The science of beauty 1999, Anchor Books, New York, NY.
78. Fairburn C.G., Bohn K. Eating disorder NOS (EDNOS): An example of the troublesome "not otherwise specified" (NOS) category in DSM-IV. Behavior Research and Therapy 2005, 45:691-701.
79. Ferguson C.J. An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 2009, 40:532-538.
80. Ferguson C.J., Cruz A., Martinez D., Rueda S., Ferguson D. Violence and sex as advertising strategies in television commercials. European Psychologist 2010, 15(4):304-311.
81. Ferguson, C. J., Munoz, M. E., Contreras, C., & Velasquez, K. (in press). Mirror, mirror on the wall: Peer competition, television influences and body image dissatisfaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology.
82. Ferguson C.J., San Miguel C., Hartley R.D. A multivariate analysis of youth violence and aggression: The influence of family, peers, depression and media violence. Journal of Pediatrics 2009, 155:904-908.
83. Feshbach N.D. Sex differences in children's modes of aggressive responses toward outsiders. Merrill Palmer Quarterly 1969, 15:249-258.
84. Fisher M., Cox A. The influence of female attractiveness on competitor derogation. Journal of Evolutionary Psychology 2009, 7:141-155.
85. Fombonne E. Anorexia nervosa: No evidence of an increase. British Journal of Psychiatry 1995, 166:462-471.
86. Fombonne E. Is bulimia nervosa increasing in frequency?. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1995, 19:287-296.
87. Franzblau A. A primer of statistics for non-statisticians 1958, Harcourt, Brace & World, New York, NY.
88. Fredrickson B., Roberts T. Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly 1997, 21:173-206. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
89. Freedman R.E., Carter M.M., Sbrocco T., Gray J.J. Do men hold African-American and Caucasian women to different standards of beauty?. Eating Behavior 2007, 8:319-333. doi: 10.1016/j.eatbeh.2006.11.008.
90. Friederich H.C., Uher R., Brooks S., Giampietro V., Brammer M., Williams S.C.R., Campbell I.C. I'm not as slim as that girl: Neural bases of body shape self-comparison to media images. Neuroimage 2007, 37:674-681.
91. Frost P. European hair and eye color: A case of frequency-dependent sexual selection?. Evolution and Human Behavior 2006, 27:85-103.
92. Gangestad S.W., Haselton M.G., Buss D.M. Evolutionary foundations of cultural variation: Evoked culture and mate preferences. Psychological Inquiry 2006, 17:75-95.
93. Gangestad S.W., Simpson J.A. The evolution of human mating: Trade-offs and strategic pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2000, 23:573-644.
94. Gangestad S.W., Thornhill R. Human oestrus. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 2008, 275:991-1000.
95. Gat A. War in human civilization 2006, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
96. Geary D.C. Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment. Psychological Bulletin 2000, 126:55-77.
97. Geary D.C. Male/female: The evolution of human sex differences 2010, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. 2nd ed.
98. Geary D.C., Byrd-Craven J., Hoard M.K., Vigil J., Numtee C. Evolution and development of boys' social behavior. Developmental Review 2003, 23:444-470.
99. Gilbert D. Stumbling on happiness 2006, Alfred K. Knopf, New York, NY.
100. Gilovich T., Savitsky K. The spotlight effect and the illusion of transparency: Egocentric assessments of how we are seen by others. Current Directions in Psychological Science 1999, 8:165-167.
101. Gorwood P., Kipman A., Foulon C. The human genetics of anorexia nervosa. European Journal of Pharmacology 2003, 480:163-170.
102. Gottschall J. Greater emphasis on female attractiveness in Homo sapiens: A revised solution to an old evolutionary riddle. Evolutionary Psychology 2007, 5:347-357.
103. Gottschall J., Anderson K., Burbank C., Burch J., Byrnes C., Callanan C., Zocco M. The "beauty myth" is no myth: Emphasis on male-female attractiveness in world folktales. Human Nature 2008, 19:174-188.
104. Grabe S., Hyde J. Ethnicity and body dissatisfaction among women in the United States: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 2006, 132:622-640.
105. Grabe S., Ward L., Hyde J. The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin 2008, 134:460-476.
106. Grammer K., Fink B., Møller A.P., Manning J.T. Physical attractiveness and health: Comment on Weeden and Sabini. Psychological Bulletin 2005, 131:658-661.
107. Grammer K., Fink B., Møller A.P., Thornhill R. Darwinian aesthetics: Sexual selection and the biology of beauty. Biological Review 2003, 78:385-407.
108. Grammer K., Thornhill R. Human (Homo sapiens) facial attractiveness and sexual selection: The role of symmetry and averageness. Journal of Comparative Psychology 1994, 108:233-242.
109. Groesz L.M., Levine M.P., Murnen S.K. The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2002, 31:1-16.
110. Guttentag M., Secord P. Too many women? 1983, Sage, Beverly Hills, CA.
111. Halliwell E., Dittmar H. Does size matter? The impact of models' body size on women's body-focused anxiety and advertising effectiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 2004, 23:104-122.
112. Harrison K., Cantor J. The relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication 1997, 47:40-67.
113. Harvey J.A., Robinson J.D. Eating disorders in men: Current considerations. Journal of Clinical Psychology and Medical Settings 2003, 10:297-306.
114. Heinberg L.J., Thompson J.K. Body image and televised images of thinness and attractiveness: A controlled laboratory investigation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 1995, 14:325-338.
115. Hill S. Overestimation bias in mate competition. Evolution and Human Behavior 2007, 28:118-123.
116. Hill S., Buss D.M. Envy and positional bias in the evolutionary psychology of management. Managerial and Decision Economics 2006, 27:131-143.
117. Hoek H.W. Incidence, prevalence and mortality of anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders. Current Opinion in Psychiatry 2006, 19:389-394.
118. Hoek H.W., van Harten P.N., Hermans K.M.E., Katzman M.E., Matroos G.E., Susser E.S. The incidence of anorexia nervosa on Curacao. American Journal of Psychiatry 2005, 162:748-752.
119. Hoek H.W., van Hoeken D. Review of the prevalence and incidence of eating disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2003, 34:383-396.
120. Holmstrom A. The effects of media on body image: A meta-analysis. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 2004, 48:186-217.
121. Horwitz A.V., Wakefield J.C. The loss of sadness: How psychiatry transformed normal sorrow into depressive disorder 2007, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
122. Jacobi C., Hayward C., de Zwann M., Kraemer H.C., Agras W.S. Coming to terms with risk factors for eating disorders: Application of risk terminology and suggestions for a general taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin 2004, 130:19-65.
123. James V., Owens L.D. 'They turned around like I wasn't there': An analysis of teenage girls' letters about their peer conflicts. Social Psychology International 2005, 26:71-88.
124. Jasienska G., Lipson S.F., Ellison P.T., Thune I., Ziomkiewicz A. Symmetrical women have higher reproductive potential. Evolution and Human Behavior 2006, 27:390-400.
125. Jasienska G., Ziomkiewicz A., Ellison P.T., Lipson S.F., Thune I. Large breasts and narrow waists indicate high reproductive potential in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 2004, 271:1213-1217.
126. Jones D. Social comparison and body image: Attractiveness comparisons to models and peers among adolescent girls and boys. Sex Roles 2001, 45:645-664. doi: 10.1023/A:1014815725852.
127. Jones D. Body image among adolescent girls and boys: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology 2004, 40:823-835.
128. Jones D.C., Vigfusdottir T.H., Lee Y. Body image and the appearance culture among adolescent girls and boys: An examination of friend conversations, peer criticism, appearance magazines, and the internalization of appearance ideals. Journal of Adolescent Research 2004, 19:323-339.
129. Joseph R. Competition between women. Psychology: A Quarterly Journal of Human Behavior 1985, 22:1-11.
130. Joshi R., Herman C.P., Polivy J. Self-enhancing effects of exposure to thin-body images. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2004, 35:333-341.
131. Kanazawa S. Bowling with our imaginary friends. Evolution and Human Behavior 2002, 23:167-171.
132. Kasser T., Sharma Y.S. Reproductive freedom, educational equality, and females' preference for resource-acquisition characteristics in mates. Psychological Science 1999, 10:374-377.
133. Katzmaryk P.T., Davis C. Thinness and body shape of Playboy centerfolds from 1978 to 1998. International Journal of Obesity 2001, 25:590-592.
134. Kaukianinen A., Bjorkqvist K., Lagerspetz K., Osterman K., Salmivalli C., Rothberg S., Ahlbo A. The relationships between social intelligence, empathy, and three types of aggression. Aggressive Behavior 1999, 25:81-89.
135. Kaye W. Neurobiology of anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Physiology and Behavior 2008, 94:121-135.
136. Kaye W. Eating disorders: Hope despite mortal risk. American Journal of Psychiatry 2010, 166:1309-1311.
137. Kaye W.H., Bulik C.M., Thornton L., Barbarich N., Masters K. American Journal of Psychiatry 2004, 161:2215-2221. the Price Foundation Collaborative Group.
138. Kaye W.H., Fudge J.L., Paulus M. New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009, 10:573-584.
139. Keegan J. A history of warfare 1994, Random House, New York, NY.
140. Keel P.K., Heatherton T.F., Dorer D.J., Joiner T.E., Zalta A.K. Point prevalence of bulimia nervosa in 1982, 1992, and 2002. Psychological Medicine 2006, 36:119-127.
141. Keel P.K., Klump L.K. Are eating disorders culture-bound syndromes? Implications for conceptualizing their etiology. Psychological Bulletin 2003, 129:747-769.
142. Keeley L.H. War before civilization: The myth of the peaceful savage 1996, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
143. Keller M.C., Miller G.F. Resolving the paradox of common, harmful, heritable mental disorders: Which evolutionary models work best?. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2006, 29:385-404.
144. Keller M.C., Nesse R.M. Is low mood an adaptation? Evidence for subtypes with symptoms that match precipitants. Journal of Affective Disorders 2005, 27-35.
145. Kenrick D.T., Keefe R.C. Age preferences in mates reflect sex differences in human reproductive strategies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1992, 15:75-91.
146. Kenrick D.T., Keefe R.C., Gabrielidis C., Cornelius J.S. Adolescents' age preferences for dating partners: Support for an evolutionary model of life-history strategies. Child Development 1996, 67:1499-1511.
147. Keski-Rahkonen A., Bulik C.M., Neale B.M., Rose R.J., Rissanen A., Kaprio J. Body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness in young adult twins. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2005, 37:188-199.
148. Keski-Rahkonen A., Hoek H.W., Susser E., Linna M.S., Sihvola E., Raevuori A., Rissanen A. Epidemiology and course of anorexia nervosa in the community. American Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 164:1259-1265.
149. Klump K.L., Miller K.B., Keel P.K., McGue M., Iacono W.G. Genetic and environmental influences on anorexia nervosa syndromes in a population-based twin sample. Psychological Medicine 2001, 31:737-740.
150. Kraemer H.C., Kazdin A.E., Offord D.R., Kessler R.C., Jensen P.S., Kupfer D.J. Coming to terms with the terms of risk. Archives of General Psychiatry 1997, 54:337-343.
151. Krones P., Stice E., Batres C., Orjada K. In vivo social comparison to a thin-ideal peer promotes body dissatisfaction: A randomized experiment. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2005, 38:134-142. doi: 10.1002/eat.20171.
152. Laland K.N., Brown G. Sense and nonsense: Evolutionary perspectives on human behavior 2002, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
153. Lassek W.D., Gaulin S.J. Waist-hip ratio and cognitive ability: Is gluteofemoral fat a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources?. Evolution and Human Behavior 2008, 29:26-34.
154. Law Smith M.J., Perrett D.I., Jones B.C., Cornwell R.E., Moore F.R., Feinberg D.R., Hillier S.G. Facial appearance is a cue to estrogen levels in women. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2006, 273:135-140.
155. LeBlanc S., Register K.E. Constant battles: The myth of the peaceful, noble savage 2003, St. Martin's Press, New York, NY.
156. Levine M., Murnen S. "Everybody knows that mass media are/are not [pick one] a cause of eating disorders": A critical review of evidence for a causal link between media, negative body image, and disordered eating in females. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology 2009, 28:9-42. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.9.
157. Li N., Smith A., Griskevicius V., Cason M., Bryan A. Intrasexual competition and eating restriction in heterosexual and homosexual individuals. Evolution and Human Behavior 2010, 31:365-372. doi: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.05.004.
158. Lindberg S.M., Grabe S., Hyde J.S. Gender pubertal development, and peer sexual harassment predict objectified body consciousness in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence 2007, 17:723-742.
159. Lippa R.A. The preferred traits of mates in a cross-national study of heterosexual and homosexual men and women: An examination of biological and cultural influences. Archives of Sexual Behavior 2007, 36:193-208.
160. Lipsey M.W. Design sensitivity: Statistical power for applied experimental research. Handbook of applied social research methods 1998, 39-68. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA. L. Bickman, D.J. Rog (Eds.).
161. Luxen M.F., Van De Vijver F.J.R. Facial attractiveness, sexual selection, and personnel selection: When evolved preferences matter. Journal of Organizational Behavior 2006, 27:241-255.
162. Marlowe F. The nobility hypothesis: The human breast as an honest signal of residual reproductive value. Human Nature 1999, 9:263-271.
163. Marlowe F.W. The mating system of foragers in the standard cross-cultural sample. Cross Cultural Research 2003, 37:282-306.
164. Marlowe F.W. Hunter-gatherers and human evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology 2005, 14:54-67.
165. Martin M.C., Kennedy P.F. Advertising and social comparison: Consequences for female preadolescents and adolescents. Psychology and Marketing 1993, 10:513-530.
166. Mazur A. U.S. trends in feminine beauty and overadaptation. Journal of Sex Research 1986, 22:281-303.
167. McCabe M.P., Ricciardelli L.A. A prospective study of pressures from parents, peers, and the media on extreme weight change behaviors among adolescent boys and girls. Behavior Research and Therapy 2005, 43:653-668.
168. McLaren L., Gauvin L. Neighborhood level versus individual level correlates of women's body dissatisfaction: Toward a multilevel understanding of the role of affluence. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2002, 56:193-199.
169. Menzel J.E., Schaefer L.M., Burke N.L., Mayhew L.L., Brannick M.T., Thompson J.K. Appearance-related teasing, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating: A meta-analysis. Body Image 2010, 7:261-270.
170. Merten D.E. The meaning of meanness: Popularity, competition, and conflict among junior high school girls. Sociology of Education 1997, 70:175-191.
171. Miller G.F. The mating mind: How sexual choice shaped the evolution of human nature 2000, Anchor Books, New York, NY.
172. Miller G.F. Spent: Sex, evolution, and consumer behavior 2009, Viking, New York, NY.
173. Milner M. Freeks, geeks, and cool kids: American teenagers, schools, and the culture of consumption 2004, Routledge, New York, NY.
174. Monteath S.A., McCabe M.P. The influence of societal factors on the female body image. Journal of Social Psychology 1997, 137:708-727.
175. Morris D. The naked ape: A zoologist's study of the human animal 1999, Delta, New York, NY.
176. Nelson L.D., Morrison E. The symptoms of resource scarcity: Judgments of food and finances influence preferences for potential partners. Psychological Science 2005, 16:167-173.
177. Nettle D. An evolutionary model of low mood states. Journal of Theoretical Biology 2009, 25:100-103.
178. Nettle D. Ecological influences on human behavioural diversity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2009, 24:618-624.
179. Nolen-Hoeksema S., Jackson B. Mediators of the gender difference in rumination. Psychology of Women Quarterly 2001, 25:37-47.
180. Oesterman K., Bjoerkqvist K., Lagerspetz K.M.J., Kaukiainen A., Landau S.F., Fraczek A., Caprara G.V. Cross-cultural evidence of female indirect aggression. Aggressive Behavior 1998, 24:1-8.
181. Ogden D. Polygamy, prostitutes and death: The hellenistic dynasties 1999, Duckworth, London, UK.
182. Ono H., Yielding R. Marriage, cohabitation and childcare: The US and Sweden. Social Indicators Research 2009, 93:137-140.
183. Otterbein K.F. How war began 2004, Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX.
184. Owen P., Laurel-Seller E. Weight and shape ideals: Thin is dangerously in. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 2000, 30:979-990. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02506.x.
185. Parry-Jones W.L. Archival exploration of anorexia nervosa. Journal of Psychiatric Research 1985, 19:95-100.
186. Parry-Jones W.L., Parry-Jones B. Bulimia: An archival review of its history in psychosomatic medicine. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1991, 10:129-143.
187. Pawluck D.E., Gorey K.M. Secular trends in the incidence of anorexia nervosa: Integrative review of population-based studies. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1998, 23:347-352.
188. Paxton S.J., Schutz H.K., Wertheim E.H., Muir S.L. Friendship clique and peer influences on body image concerns, dietary restraint, extreme weight loss behaviours, and binge eating in adolescent girls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1999, 108:255-266.
189. Pederson F.A. Secular trends in human sex ratios: Their influence on individual and family behavior. Human Nature 1991, 2:271-291.
190. Podar I., Allik J. A cross cultural comparison of the Eating Disorder Inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2009, 42:346-355.
191. Polivy J., Herman C.P. Causes of eating disorders. Annual Review of Psychology 2002, 53:187-214.
192. Pollet T.V., Nettle D. Driving a hard bargain: Sex ratio and male marriage success in a historical US population. Biology Letters 2008, 4:31-33.
193. Pratt T., Cullen F.T. Assessing macro-level predictors and theories of crime: A meta-analysis. Crime and justice: A review of research 2005, 32:373-450. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. M. Tonry (Ed.).
194. Presnell K., Bearman S.K., Stice E. Risk factors for body dissatisfaction in adolescent boys and girls: A prospective study. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2004, 36:389-401.
195. Prince R. The concept of culture-bound syndromes: Anorexia nervosa and brain-fag. Social Science & Medicine 1985, 21:197-203.
196. Puts D.A. Beauty and the beast: Mechanisms of sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior 2010, 31:157-175.
197. Rhodes G., Simmons L.W., Peters M. Attractiveness and sexual behavior: Does attractiveness enhance mating success?. Evolution and Human Behavior 2005, 26:186-201.
198. Richerson P.J., Boyd R. Not by genes alone: How culture transformed human evolution 2005, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
199. Rilling J.K., Kaufman T.L., Smith E.O., Patel R., Worthman C.M. Abdominal depth and waist circumference as influential determinants of human female attractiveness. Evolution and Human Behavior 2009, 30:21-31.
200. Roberts A., Cash T.F., Feingold A., Johnson B.T. Are Black-White differences in females' body dissatisfaction decreasing? A meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2006, 74:1121-1131.
201. Roberts D.F. Media and youth: Access, exposure, and privatization. Journal of Adolescent Health 2000, 27:8-14.
202. Rose A.J., Rudolph K.D. A review of sex differences in peer relational processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin 2006, 132:98-131.
203. Rucas S.L., Gurven M., Kaplan H., Winking J., Gangestad S., Crespo M. Female intrasexual competition and reputational effects on attractiveness among the Tsimane of Bolivia. Evolution and Human Behavior 2006, 27:40-52.
204. Russell C.J., Keel P.K. Homosexuality as a specific risk factor for eating disorders in men. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2003, 31:300-306.
205. Sanderson S.K. The evolution of human sociality: A Darwinian conflict perspective 2001, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.
206. Santos M., Richards C.S., Bleckley M.K. Comorbidity between depression and disordered eating in adolescents. Eating Behaviors 2007, 8:440-449.
207. Schwartz B. The tyranny of choice. Scientific American 2004, 290:70-76.
208. Schwartz B., Ward A., Monterosso J., Lyubomirsky S., White K., Lehman D.R. Maximizing versus satisficing: Happiness is a matter of choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2002, 83:1178-1197.
209. Seltzer J.A. Cohabitation in the United States and Britain: Demography, kinship, and the future. Journal of Marriage and Family 2004, 66:921-928.
210. Shroff H., Thompson J. Body image and eating disturbance in India: Media and interpersonal influences. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2004, 35:198-203. doi: 10.1002/eat.10229.
211. Shroff H., Thompson J. Peer influences, body image satisfaction, eating dysfunction and self-esteem in adolescent girls. Journal of Health Psychology 2006, 11:533-551.
212. Simmons R. Odd girl out: The hidden culture of aggression in girls 2002, Harcourt, Orlando, FL.
213. Singh D. Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1993, 65:293-307.
214. Singh D. Universal allure of the hourglass figure: An evolutionary theory of female physical attractiveness. Clinics in Plastic Surgery 2006, 33:359-370.
215. Singh D., Randall P.K. Beauty is in the eye of the plastic surgeon: Waist-hip ratio (WHR) and women's attractiveness. Personality and Individual Differences 2007, 43:329-340.
216. Singh D., Renn P., Singh A. Did the perils of abdominal obesity affect depiction of feminine beauty in the sixteenth to eighteenth century British literature? Exploring the health and beauty link. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 2007, 274:891-894.
217. Singh D., Singh D. Role of body fat and body shape on judgment of female health and attractiveness: An evolutionary perspective. Psychological Topics 2006, 15:331-350.
218. Smith E., Borgerhoff-Mulder M., Hill K. Controversies in the evolutionary social sciences: A guide for the perplexed. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2001, 16:128-135.
219. Smolak L. Body image in children and adolescents: Where do we go from here?. Body Image 2004, 1:15-28.
220. Smolak L., Levine M., Thompson J. The use of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire with middle school boys and girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2001, 29:216-223. doi: 10.1002/1098-108X(200103)29:2::AID-EAT10113.0.CO;2-V.
221. Soh N.L., Touyz S.W., Surgenor L.J. Eating and body image disturbances across cultures: A review. European Eating Disorders Review 2006, 14:54-65.
222. Spanos A., Burt S.A., Klump K.L. Do weight and shape concerns exhibit genetic effects: Investigating discrepant findings. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2010, 43:29-34.
223. Stevenson B., Wolfers J. Marriage and divorce: Changes and their driving forces. Journal of Economic Perspectives 2007, 21:27-52.
224. Stice E., Shaw H.E. Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology: A synthesis of research findings. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2002, 53:961-962.
225. Strahan, E. (2003). Selling thinness: How media images increase importance of weight and beauty as a basis of women's self esteem and decrease their body satisfaction and eating. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Waterloo, Ontario Canada.
226. Striegel-Moore R.H., Cachelin F.M. Etiology of eating disorders in women. Counseling Psychologist 2001, 29:635-661.
227. Striegel-Moore R.H., Schreiber G.B., Pike K.M., Wilfley D.E., Rodin J. Drive for thinness in Black and White preadolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1995, 18:59-69.
228. Sumathipala A., Siribaddan S.H., Bhugra D. Culture-bound syndromes: The story of dhat syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry 2004, 184:200-209.
229. Swami V., Frederick D.A., Aavik T., Alcalay L., Allik J., Anderson D., Zivcic-Becirevic I. The attractive female body weight and female body dissatisfaction in 26 countries across 10 world regions: Results of the international body project I. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 2010, 36(3):309-325. doi: 10.1177/0146167209359702.
230. Swami V., Gray M., Furnham A. The female nude in Rubens: Disconfirmatory evidence of the waist-to-hip ratio hypothesis of female attractiveness. Imagination, Cognition and Personality 2006, 26:139-147.
231. Swami V., Tovée M.J. Does hunger influence judgments of female physical attractiveness. British Journal of Psychology 2006, 97:353-363.
232. Swami V., Tovée M. The muscular male: A comparison of the physical attractiveness preferences of gay and heterosexual men. International Journal of Men's Health 2008, 7:59-71.
233. Symons D. The evolution of human sexuality 1979, Oxford, New York, NY.
234. Taylor C., Sharpe T., Shisslak C., Bryson S., Estes L.S., Gray N., Killen J.D. Factors associated with weight concerns in adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1998, 24(1):31-42. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1098-108X(199807)24:1<31::AID-EAT3>3.0.CO;2-1.
235. Thompson J., Stice E. Thin-ideal internalization: Mounting evidence for a new risk factor for body-image disturbance and eating pathology. Current Directions in Psychological Science 2001, 10:181-183. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00144.
236. Thompson J., van den Berg P., Roehrig M., Guarda A., Heinberg L. The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3): Development and validation. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2004, 35:293-304. doi: 10.1002/eat.10257.
237. Thornhill R., Gangestad S.W. The evolutionary biology of human female sexuality 2008, Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
238. Thornton B., Maurice J. Physique contrast effect: Adverse impact of idealized body images for women. Sex Roles 1997, 37:433-439.
239. Tiggemann M. The role of media exposure in adolescent girls' body dissatisfaction and drive for thinness: Prospective results. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 2006, 25:523-541.
240. Tooby J., Cosmides L. The psychological foundations of culture. The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture 1992, 19-36. Oxford University Press, New York, NY. J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, J. Tooby (Eds.).
241. Tovée M.J., Cornelissen P.L. Female and male perceptions of female physical attractiveness in front-view and profile. British Journal of Psychology 2001, 92:391-402.
242. Tovée M.J., Swami V., Furnham A., Mangalparsad R. Changing perceptions of attractiveness as observers are exposed to a different culture. Evolution and Human Behavior 2006, 27:443-456.
243. Trampe D., Stapel D., Siero F. On models and vases: Body dissatisfaction and proneness to social comparison effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2007, 92:106-118.
244. Trivers R.L. Parental investment and sexual selection. Sexual selection and the descent of man 1871-1971 1972, 136-179. Aldine, Chicago, IL. B. Campbell (Ed.).
245. Turiel E. The relevance of moral epistemology and psychology for neuroscience. Developmental social cognitive neuroscience 2009, 313-331. Taylor & Francis, New York, NY. P. Zelazo, M. Chandler, E. Crone (Eds.).
246. Turiel E. Snap judgment? Not so fast: Thought, reasoning, and choice as psychological realities. Human Development 2010, 53:105-109. doi: 10.1159/000315167.
247. Vandereycken W., van Deth R. From fasting saints to anorexic girls: The history of self-starvation 1994, New York University Press, New York, NY.
248. Wade T.J. Evolutionary theory and self-perception: Sex differences in body esteem predictors of self-perceived physical and sexual attractiveness and self-esteem. International Journal of Psychology 2000, 35:36-45.
249. Wade T.J., Cooper M. Sex differences in the links between attractiveness, self-esteem and the body. Personality and Individual Differences 1999, 27:1047-1056.
250. Wade T., Wilkinson J., Ben-Tovim D. The genetic epidemiology of body attitudes, the attitudinal component of body image in women. Psychological Medicine 2003, 33:1395-1405. doi: 10.1017/S0033291703008572.
251. Want S.C. Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes. Body Image 2009, 6:257-269.
252. Wasilenko K., Kulik J., Wanic R. Effects of social comparisons with peers on women's body satisfaction and exercise behavior. International Journal of Eating Disorders 2007, 40:740-745. doi: 10.1002/eat.20433.
253. Wheeler L., Miyake K. Social comparison in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1992, 62:760-774.
254. Wilfley D., Schreiber G., Pike K., Striegel-Moore R., Wright D., Rodin J. Eating disturbance and body image: A comparison of a community sample of adult Black and White women. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1996, 20:377-387.
255. Williams G.C. Adaptation and natural selection 1966, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
256. Williams P., King M. The "epidemic" of anorexia nervosa: Another medical myth?. Lancet 1987, 1:205-207.
257. Wilson T.D. Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious 2002, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
258. Wilson T.D., Dunn E.W. Self-knowledge: Its limits, value, and potential for improvement. Annual Review of Psychology 2004, 55:493-518.
259. Wiseman C.V., Gray J.J., Mosiman J.E., Ahrens A.H. Cultural expectations of thinness in women: An update. International Journal of Eating Disorders 1992, 11:85-89.
260. Wiseman R. Queen Bees and wannabes: Helping your daughter survive cliques, gossip, boyfriends and the new realities of girl world 2009, Three Rivers Press, New York, NY.
261. Wolf N. The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women 2002, Harper, New York, NY.
262. Wonderlich S.A., Joiner T.E., Keel P.K., Williamson D.A., Crosby R.D. Eating disorder diagnoses: Empirical approaches to classification. American Psychologist 2007, 62:167-180.