The road to the well: An evaluation of the customary right to water

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 19, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 282-293

  Bates, Rebecca ^a  

^a BRUNEL UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INTERNATIONAL LAW; WATER ECONOMICS; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER RESOURCE;

EID: 79951833162     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9388.2010.00687.x     Document Type: Article

References (233)

1. E. Bluer, 'The Implication of Formulating a Human Right to Water', 31 Ecology Law Quarterly (2004), 957, at 959;
2. V. Shiva, Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution and Profit (South End Press, 2002), at 1.
3. See V. Shiva, ibid., at 1.
4. M. Barlow and B. Clarke, Blue Gold: The Battle Against the Corporate Theft of the World's Water (Earthscan Publications, 2002), at 1-4.
5. See ibid., at 3-4;
6. and J. Rothfeder, Every Drop for Sale (Penguin, 2001), at 26-30.
7. See also Indigenous Peoples Kyoto Water Declaration, Third World Water Forum (Kyoto, March 2003).
8. Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE): Right to Water Programme, Legal Resources for the Right to Water- International and National Standards (COHRE, 2004), at 4;
9. World Bank, Water and Poverty Linked (World Bank, undated), available at 〈 http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0., contentMDK:20856041- pagePK:64257043-piPK:437376-theSitePK:4607,00.html〉
10. and World Health Organization and United Nations Children's Fund, Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-Water: 2010 Update (WHO and UNICF, 2010), available at 〈 http://www.unicef.org/wash/files/JMP-report-2010.pdf〉.
11. See World Bank, ibid.
12. S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, The Human Right to Water: Legal and Policy Dimensions (World Bank, 2004), at 1-3.
13. D. Shelton, 'Environmental Rights', in A. Phillip (ed.), People's Rights (Oxford University Press, 2001), at 189.
14. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 1-3.
15. See D. Shelton, n. 8 above, at 189.
16. See, e.g., the experience of Rwanda: A. Kupperman, The Limits of Humanitarian Intervention: Genocide in Rwanda (Brookings Institution Press, 2001).
17. J. Mowbray, 'The Right to Food and the International Economic System: An Assessment of the Rights-Based Approach to the Problem of World Hunger', 20 Leiden Journal of International Law (2007), 545;
18. and D. Kennedy, 'The International Human Rights Movement: Part of the Problem?', 6 European Human Rights Law Review (2001), 245.
19. Mazibuko and Others v. City of Johannesburg and Others (CCT 39/09), [2009] ZACC 28 (the Mazibuko Case).
20. Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996), available at 〈http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/index.htm〉.
21. See the Mazibuko Case, n. 13 above, paras 55-64;
22. Constitutional Court of South Africa, Lindiwe Mazibuko and Others v. City of Johannesburg and Others, Media Summary (Constitutional Court of South Africa, 8 October 2009), available at 〈 http://web.wits.ac.za/NR/rdonlyres/ 7AF898F8-E7C3-46CA-A9FA-11FE1993A577/0/CCT3909Mazibukomediasummary.pdf〉.
23. P. Gleick, 'The Human Right to Water', 1:5 Water Policy (1999), 487, available at 〈 http://www.pacinst.org/reports/basic-water-needs/〉.
24. M. Shaw, International Law, 3rd edn (Cambridge University Press, 1991), at 60-61.
25. Statute of the International Court of Justice (1945) Act 1945/32 I. Brownlie, Principles of International Law, 5th edn (Oxford University Press, 1998), at 3.
26. I. Shearer, Starke's International Law, 11th edn (Butterworths, 1994), at 32.
27. M. Akehurst, 'Custom as a Source of International Law', 47 British Year Book of International Law (1974-1975), 53,
28. cited in M. Dixon and R. McCorquodale, Cases and Materials on International Law, 2nd edn (Oxford University Press, 1995), at 26-27.
29. K. Wolfke, Custom in Present International Law (Springer, 1964), at 60.
30. See I. Brownlie, n. 18 above, at 5.
31. ICJ 20 November 1950, Colombia v. Peru (Asylum Case), [1950] ICJ Rep. 266, at 276-277;
32. see also I. Brownlie, ibid., at 6.
33. ICJ 25 July 1974, United Kingdom v. Iceland (Fisheries Jurisdiction Case), [1974] ICJ Rep. 116;
34. see also I. Brownlie, ibid., at 6-10;
35. and K. Wolfke, n. 21 above, at 80-81.
36. ICJ 20 February 1969, Federal Republic of Germany v. Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany v. Netherlands (North Sea Continental Shelf Case), [1969] ICJ Rep. 3;
37. see also M. Shaw, n. 17 above, at 74;
38. M. Byers, 'Introduction: Power, Obligation and Customary International Law', 11 Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law (2001), 81, at 86.
39. ICJ 7 September 1927, France v. Turkey (Lotus Case), [1927] PCIJ (Ser. A) No 10.
40. See Colombia v. Peru, n. 23 above.
41. See North Sea Continental Shelf Case, n. 25 above.
42. See, e.g., I. Brownlie, n. 18 above, at 4-8;
43. D. Arrow 'The Proposed Regime for Unilateral Exploration of Deep Sea Bed Mineral Resources Held by the United States', 21 Harvard International Law Journal (1980), 337, at 370-372;
44. J.L. Slama, 'Opinio Juris in Customary International Law', 15:2 Oklahoma City University Law Review (1990), 603, at 603-605;
45. and M. Bryers, n. 25 above.
46. ICJ 27 June 1986, Nicaragua v. US (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua), [1986] ICJ Rep. 14 (Merits).
47. Ibid,.
48. J. Paust, 'The Complex Nature, Sources and Evidences of Customary Human Rights', 25 Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law (1995-1996), 147, at 148.
49. See also J.L. Slama, n. 29 above, at 616.
50. J. Pearce, 'Customary International Law: Not Merely Fiction of Myth', Australian International Law Journal (2003), 125, at 133.
51. See J.L. Slama, n. 29 above, at 610.
52. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 7.
53. D. Hunter, J. Salzman and D. Zaelke, International Environmental Law and Policy, 2nd edn (Foundation Press, 2002), at 170-173.
54. Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 16 June 1972) (Stockholm Declaration).
55. See D. Hunter et al., n. 36 above, at 283-288;
56. S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 7-8.
57. See Stockholm Declaration, n. 37 above, Principle 2.
58. J. Scanlon, A. Cassar and N. Nemes, Water as a Human Right?, IUCN Environmental Law and Policy Paper No 51 (IUCN, 2004), at 6-12;
59. see also S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 7.
60. See J. Scanlon et al., ibid, at 6-12;
61. and S. McCaffrey, 'A Human Right to Water: Domestic and International Implications', 5 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (1992-1993), 12, at 12-16.
62. See S. McCaffrey, ibid., at 173;
63. and P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7.
64. Report of the United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, 14-25 March 1977 (UN Publication, E77 II A 12, 1977) (Mar Del Plata Action Plan).
65. Ibid., Resolution II; and see COHRE, n. 5 above, at 6.
66. See J. Scanlon et al., n. 40 above, at 28-30.
67. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 9;
68. and D. Shelton, n. 8 above.
69. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, ibid., at 9.
70. See P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7;
71. COHRE, n. 5 above, at 14-15;
72. and T. Stephens, 'Multiple International Courts and the "Fragmentation" of International Environmental Law', 25 Australian Year Book of International Law (2006), 227, at 234-240.
73. See T. Stephens, ibid., at 234-240.
74. Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (Copenhagen, 17 July 1980) (CEDAW).
75. Ibid., Section 14(2) and 14(2)(h).
76. Convention of the Rights of the Child (UN General Assembly Resolution 44/25, 20 November 1989) (CRC), Article 24.
77. See J. Scanlon et al., n. 40 above, at 5-6.
78. Ibid,.
79. See P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7-8.
80. See J. Scanlon et al., n. 40 above, at 5-6.
81. See CRC, n. 52 above.
82. See J. Scanlon et al., n. 40 above, at 5.
83. See CRC, et al., 52 above, Article 24;
84. P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7-8.
85. See CRC, et al., 52 above, Article 24(2)(e);
86. and Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, WaterAid, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and UN-Habitat, Sanitation: A Human Rights Imperative (COHRE, WaterAid, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and UN-Habitat, 2008), at 11-12.
87. See J. Scanlon et al., n. 40 above, at 5-6.
88. Ibid,.
89. In March 2008, the United Nations Human Rights Council reaffirmed the principles contained within the CRC, International Convention on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and CEDAW to establish an independent expert on human rights obligations related to safe water and sanitation access. The resolution also reaffirmed the obligation of governments to ensure their citizens safe and adequate access to water and sanitation. See Human Rights Council, Promotion and Protection of all Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Including the Right to Development (A/HRC/7/L.16, 20 March 2008);
90. and COHRE, WaterAid, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and UN-Habitat, n. 60 above, at 12-13.
91. See P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7.
92. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (Vienna, 25 June 1993), Article 1(10);
93. Programme of Action of the United Nations International Conference on Population and Development (Cairo, 13 September 1994), Principle 3;
94. Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development (Copenhagen, 12 March 1995), commitment 1(n);
95. and United Nations Development Programme, Integrating Human Rights with Sustainable Development (UNDP, 1998).
96. Declaration of the Right to Development (GA RES 41/128, 4 December, 1986);
97. and P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7.
98. See Declaration on the Right to Development, Ibid., Articles 1 and 2.
99. Ibid., Article 8.
100. United Nations, The United Nations and Human Rights 1945-1995 (United Nations, 1995),
101. cited in P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 7.
102. See P. Gleick, ibid., at 7.
103. See United Nations, n. 67 above.
104. Substantive Issues arising in the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 15 (E/C 12/2002/11, 20 January 2003) (General Comment 15).
105. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 64;
106. International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (New York, 16 December 1966) (ICESCR).
107. See General Comment 15, n. 72 above, Principle 2.
108. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 86-89.
109. See General Comment 15, n. 72 above, Principle 3.
110. Ibid,.
111. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 65.
112. See COHRE, n. 5 above, at 6-7.
113. See S. Salman and S. McInerney-Lankford, n. 7 above, at 86-89.
114. See E. Bluer, n. 1 above, at 972-977.
115. Ibid,.
116. Ibid., at 971.
117. Ibid., at 972-973.
118. See I. Brownlie, et al., 18 above, at 5.
119. The Human Right to Water and Sanitation (UNGA Res 64/292, 28 July 2010).
120. Ibid,.
121. Ibid., Principle 2.
122. Ibid. See also Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions, Rights and Humanity, Freshwater Action and Water Aid, Latest News (COHRE, undated), available at 〈 http://www.righttowater.info/code/homepage.asp〉.
123. See I. Brownlie, n. 18 above, at 14-15.
124. Charter of the United Nations (New York, 26 June 1945).
125. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNGA Res. 217, 10 December 1948) (UDHR).
126. See E. Bluer, n. 1 above, at 968.
127. Ibid., at 971.
128. See Statute of the International Court of Justice, n. 18 above, Article 38;
129. and I. Brownlie, n. 18 above, at 3.
130. See UDHR, n. 92 above.
131. See E. Bluer, n. 1 above, at 968-969.
132. Ibid., at 968.
133. See Charter of the United Nations, n. 91 above, Article 55.
134. See J. Scanlon et al., n. 40 above, at 3.
135. Ibid,.
136. See ICESCR, n. 73 above, Article 11(1).
137. Ibid., Article 12(1).
138. Ibid., Article 12(2).
139. Office of the United Nations High Commission for Human Rights, Status of Ratifications of the Principal International Human Rights Treaties (UNHCHR, undated), available at 〈 http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/docs/status. pdf〉.
140. See E. Bluer, n. 1 above, at 970.
141. Ibid,.
142. See P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 5.
143. See Charter of the United Nations, n. 91 above;
144. UDHR, n. 92 above; and ICESCR, n. 73 above.
145. All members of the United Nations are parties to the Charter of the United Nations.
146. See I. Shearer, n. 19 above, at 567-571. The UDHR is a resolution of the General Assembly.
147. See UDHR, n. 92 above.
148. See I. Shearer, ibid., at 32.
149. The Scotia (1871), 14 Wallace 170, at 188.
150. Ibid,.
151. See also I. Shearer, n. 19 above, at 33.
152. Ibid., at 31-37.
153. Ibid,.
154. See also I. Brownlie, n. 18 above, at 7.
155. See I. Brownlie, ibid., at 7.
156. See the Lotus Case, n. 26 above;
157. and I. Shearer, n. 19 above, at 34.
158. See P. Gleick, n. 16 above, at 8.
159. See COHRE, n. 5 above, at 45-52.
160. See South African Constitution, n. 14 above.
161. Ibid., Article 21(1);
162. and see COHRE, n. 5 above, at 46.
163. S. McCaffery and K. Neville, 'Small Capacity and Big Responsibilities: Financial and Legal Implications of Recognizing the Right to Water in Developing Countries', 21 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (2009), 679, at 686-690.
164. See Mazibuko Case, n. 13 above, at 171 (quoting affidavit of P. Gleick);
165. and see S. McCaffery and K. Neville, ibid.
166. City of Johannesburg v. L Mazibuko (489/08), [2009] ZASCA 20.
167. See Mazibuko Case, n. 13 above, at 94, per O'Regan J.
168. See S. McCaffery and K. Neville, n. 122 above;
169. and see L.J. Kotze, 'Phiri, The Plight of the Poor and the Perils of Climate Change: Time to Rethink Environmental and Socio-Economic Rights in South Africa?', 1:2 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment (2010), 135.
170. Ibid,.
171. Constitution of the Republic Uganda (1995), Preamble, Articles XIV and XIV(N), available at 〈 http://www.ugandaembassy.com/Constitution-of-Uganda. pdf〉
172. and see COHRE, n. 5 above, at 47.
173. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Ethiopia (1995), Article 216, available at 〈http://www.ethiopar.net/〉;
174. and see COHRE, ibid., at 49;
175. Constitution of the Republic of Gambia, (1997), as amended 2002, Article 241, available at 〈 http://www.ncce.gm/files/constitution.pdf〉
176. and see COHRE, n. 5 above, at 49;
177. Constitution of Zambia Act (1996), Article 112, available at 〈 http://www.parliament.gov.zm/index.php?option=com-content&task=view&id= 21<emid=49〉;
178. and see COHRE, ibid., at 52.
179. Constitution de la Republica de Ecuador (1998), Article 23 (20), available at 〈 http://pdba.georgetown.edu/constitutions/ecuador/ecuador. html〉 (unofficial translation), original Spanish version available at 〈 http://www.presidencia.gov.ec/remository/LOTAIP/a)-Estructura- Orgánica/Base-Legal/Normas/Constitución-Pol%C3%ADtica-de-la- República/〉
180. and see COHRE, ibid., at 46.
181. See Constitution de la Republica de Ecuador, ibid., Article 42;
182. and see COHRE, ibid at 46.
183. The Constitution does allow for delegation to private operators. See Constitution de la Republica de Ecuador, ibid., Article 249;
184. and COHRE, ibid., at 46.
185. See Constitution de la Republica de Ecuador, ibid., Article 249;
186. and see COHRE, ibid., at 46.
187. Constitution of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana (1980), as amended 2003, Article 36, available at 〈 http://www.parliament.gov.gy/constitution/ Content.html〉
188. and see COHRE, ibid., at 49.
189. Constitution of Lao People's Democratic Republic (1991), Article 17, available at 〈http://www.un.int/lao/constitution.htm〉
190. and see COHRE, ibid., at 49.
191. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999), Article 20, available at 〈 http://www.nigeria-law.org/ ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm〉
192. and see COHRE, ibid., at 50.
193. Constitution of Cambodia (1993), Article 59, available at 〈 http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql2/egov/khmer/organ.constitution.html〉.
194. And see COHRE, ibid., at 78.
195. Constitution of Columbia (1991), Articles 366, 367 and 368, available at 〈 http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/colombia-const2.pdf〉
196. and see COHRE, ibid., at 48.
197. Constitution of Eritrea (1997), Article 8, available at 〈 http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/-ed-protect/-protrav/-ilo-aids/ documents/legaldocument/wcms-126648.pdf〉
198. and see COHRE, ibid., at 48.
199. Constitution of the Republic of Panama (1994), Articles 114, 225 and 265, available at 〈 http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Panama/panama. html〉
200. and see COHRE, n. 5 above, at 50.
201. Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (1999), Articles 127, 178 and 184 (unofficial translation), available at 〈 http://www.embavenez-us.org/constitution/intro.htm〉
202. and see COHRE, ibid., at 51.
203. Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (1979), Articles 43 and 45, available at 〈 http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/ constitution.html〉
204. and see COHRE, ibid., at 49.
205. Constitution of the Portuguese Republic, Seventh Revision (2005), Articles 81 and 142, available at 〈 http://app.parlamento.pt/site-antigo/ ingles/cons-leg/Constitution-VII-revisao-definitive.pdf〉
206. and see COHRE, ibid., at 51.
207. See Stockholm Declaration, n. 37 above, Principle 1;
208. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (A/CONF.151/26, 14 June 1992), Principle 4.
209. See COHRE, n. 5 above, at 56-79.
210. Utilities Act 2000 (ACT).
211. Ibid., Section 83.
212. Ibid., Section 208.
213. Ibid., Section 207.
214. Ibid., Section 3; Australian Capital Territory Government, Utilities Bill Explanatory Statement (17 February 2000), available at 〈 http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/es/db-11416/20000217-13159/pdf/db-11416. pdf〉.
215. Water Services Act (1997) (South Africa).
216. Ibid., Preamble.
217. Ibid., Schedule 1(1).
218. Ibid., Section 61(1).
219. Water Industry Act 1991 (UK).
220. Regina v. Director of Water Services, Ex parte Oldham Metropolitan Borough Council and Others, Times Law Reports (6 March 1998);
221. OFWAT, Privatization and the History of the Water Industry, Information Note (OFWAT 18 February 1993 (revised May 2002)).
222. See OFWAT, ibid.
223. M. Drakeford, 'Water Regulation and Pre-Payment Meters', 25:4 Journal of Law and Society (1998), 588.
224. Ibid,.
225. Law 1877, Establishing a Subsidy for Payment for the Use of Drinking Water and Sewerage Systems (1989),
226. cited in COHRE, n. 5 above, at 59.
227. Local Government Act 2002 (NZ), Section 83, 84, 107 and 130.
228. Water Services Act (119/2001) (Finland).
229. Ley Organica para la Prestacion de los Servicios de Agua Potable y de Saneamiento, Fecha de la Sancion (Organic Law on the Provision of Potable Water and Sanitation Services), as paraphrased by COHRE, n. 5 above, at 79.
230. Council Directive 2000/60/EC of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy, [2000] OJ L327/1 (Water Framework Directive).
231. See COHRE, n. 5 above, at 56-79.
232. See I. Shearer, n. 19 above, at 35.
233. See I. Brownlie, n. 18 above, at 11-14.