Environmental and occupational exposure to lead as a potential risk factor for cardiovascular disease

Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 267-277

  Poreogonekba, Rafał ^a   Gać, Paweł ^a   Poreogonekba, Małgorzata ^a   Andrzejak, Ryszard ^a  

^a WROCLAW MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (Poland)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular diseases; Environmental exposure; Lead; Occupational exposure; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

LEAD;

ARTERIAL PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENOTOXICITY; HEALTH EDUCATION; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; LEAD POISONING; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POLLUTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; HYPERLIPIDEMIAS; HYPERTENSION; LEAD; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OXIDATIVE STRESS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 79951727717     PISSN: 13826689     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2010.12.002     Document Type: Review

References (175)

1. Adegbesan B.O., Adenuga G.A. Effect of lead exposure on liver lipid peroxidative and antioxidant defense systems of protein-undernourished rats. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2007, 116:219-225.
2. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Toxicological Profile for Lead 1999, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta.
3. Agerholm-Larsen B., Nordestgaard B.G., Tybjaerg-Hansen A. ACE gene polymorphism in cardiovascular disease: meta-analyses of small and large studies in whites. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2000, 20:484-492.
4. Aiba S., Terunuma A., Manome H., et al. Dendritic cells differently respond to haptens and irritants by their production of cytokines and expression of co-stimulatory molecules. Eur. J. Immunol. 1997, 27:3031-3038.
5. American Conference Governmental and Industrial Hygienists ACGiH Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices 2004, American Conference Governmental and Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati.
6. Andrzejak R., Smolik R. Contemporary problems of exposure to lead with special consideration to the situation in Poland. Postepy Hig. Med. Dosw. 1996, 50:581-595.
7. Andrzejak R., Poreba R., Derkacz A. Effect of chronic lead poisoning on the parameters of heart rate variability. Med. Pr. 2004, 55:139-144.
8. Auer J., Weber T., Berent R., et al. Risk factors of postoperative atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery. J. Card. Surg. 2005, 20:425-431.
9. Azambuja M.I. Spanish flu and early 20th-century expansion of a coronary heart disease-prone subpopulation. Tex. Heart Inst. J. 2004, 31:14-21.
10. Baldassarre D., Amato M., Pustina L., et al. Measurement of carotid artery intima-media thickness in dyslipidemic patients increases the power of traditional risk factors to predict cardiovascular events. Atherosclerosis 2007, 191:403-408.
11. Batra N., Nehru B., Bansal M.P., et al. The effect of zinc supplementation on the effects of lead on the rat testis. Reprod. Toxicol. 1998, 12:340-535.
12. Bechara E.J. Oxidative stress in acute intermittent porphyria and lead poisoning may be triggered by 5-aminolevulinic acid. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 1996, 29:841-851.
13. Bhunia A.K., Han H., Snowden A., et al. Redox-regulated signaling by lactosylceramide in the proliferation of human aortic smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272:15642-15649.
14. Blankenberg S., Rupprecht H.J., Poirier O., et al. Plasma concentrations and genetic variation of matrix metalloproteinase 9 and prognosis of patients with cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2003, 107:1579-1585.
15. Boadi W.Y., Urbach J., Brandes J.M., et al. In vitro exposure to mercury and cadmium alters term human placental membrane fluidity. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 1992, 116:17-23.
16. Böckelmann I., Pfister E.A., McGauran N., et al. Assessing the suitability of cross-sectional and longitudinal cardiac rhythm tests with regard to identifying effects of occupational chronic lead exposure. J. Occup. Environ. Med. 2002, 44:59-65.
17. Bonomini F., Tengattini S., Fabiano A., et al. Atherosclerosis and oxidative stress. Histol. Histopathol. 2008, 23:381-390.
18. Boscolo P., Di Gioacchino M., Spanò A., et al. Trace elements in biological samples and immunologic parameters in environmentally exposed populations (preliminary study). G. Ital. Med. Lav. Ergon. 1997, 19:53-55.
19. Buliński R., Kot A., Błoniarz J. Evaluation of heavy metal contamination of potatoes from various regions of Poland. Rocz. Panstw. Zakl. Hig. 1991, 42:351-357.
20. Cadenas E., Davies K.J. Mitochondrial free radical generation, oxidative stress, and aging. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2000, 29:222-230.
21. Cai H., Harrison D.G. Endothelial dysfunction in cardiovascular diseases: the role of oxidant stress. Circ. Res. 2000, 87:840-844.
22. CDC Preventing lead poisoning in young children. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services 1991, A Statement by the Center for Disease Control, Atlanta.
23. Chaurasia S.S., Kar A. Protective effects of vitamin E against lead-induced deterioration of membrane associated type-I iodothyronine 5'-monodeiodinase (5'D-I) activity in male mice. Toxicology 1997, 124:203-209.
24. Cheng Y., Schwartz J., Vokonas P.S., et al. Electrocardiographic conduction disturbances in association with low-level lead exposure (the Normative Aging Study). Am. J. Cardiol. 1998, 82:594-599.
25. Chiba M., Shinohara A., Matsushita K., et al. Indices of lead-exposure in blood and urine of lead-exposed workers and concentrations of major and trace elements and activities of SOD, GSH-Px and catalase in their blood. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 1996, 178:49-62.
26. Cocco P.L., Cocco E., Anni M.S., et al. Occupational exposure to lead and blood cholesterol in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient and normal subjects. Res. Commun. Chem. Pathol. Pharmacol. 1991, 72:81-95.
27. Cook N.R., Buring J.E., Ridker P.M. The effect of including C-reactive protein in cardiovascular risk prediction models for women. Ann. Intern. Med. 2006, 145:21-29.
28. Corretti M.C., Anderson T.J., Benjamin E.J., et al. Guidelines for the ultrasound assessment of endothelial-dependent flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery: a report of the International Brachial Artery Reactivity Task Force. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2002, 39:257-265.
29. Davis M.M., Taubert K., Benin A.L., et al. Influenza vaccination as secondary prevention for cardiovascular disease: a science advisory from the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology. Circulation 2006, 114:1549-1553.
30. Dawson E.B., Evans D.R., Harris W.A., et al. The effect of ascorbic acid supplementation on the blood lead levels of smokers. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 1999, 18:166-170.
31. De Backer G., Ambrosioni E., Borch-Johnsen K., et al. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice, Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. Eur. Heart J. 2003, 24:1601-1610.
32. De Backer G., Ambrosioni E., Borch-Johnsen K., et al. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: third joint task force of European and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (constituted by representatives of eight societies and by invited experts). Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil. 2003, 10:S1-S10.
33. De Stavola B.L., Meade T.W. Long-term effects of hemostatic variables on fatal coronary heart disease: 30-year results from the first prospective Northwick Park Heart Study (NPHS-I). J. Thromb. Haemost. 2007, 5:461-471.
34. DFG, 2004. List of MAK and BAT Values. Report No. 40. Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bonn.
35. Donaldson W.E., Knowles S.O. Is lead toxicosis a reflection of altered fatty acid composition of membranes?. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C 1993, 104:377-379.
36. Dursun N., Arifoglu C., Süer C., et al. Blood pressure relationship to nitric oxide, lipid peroxidation, renal function, and renal blood flow in rats exposed to low lead levels. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2005, 104:141-149.
37. Dutkiewicz T., Swiatczak J. Lead in the environment of Poland. Med. Pr. 1993, 44:53-75.
38. Duydu Y., Süzen H.S., Aydin A., et al. Correlation between lead exposure indicators and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) frequencies in lymphocytes from inorganic lead exposed workers. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2001, 41:241-246.
39. Elahi M.M., Kong Y.X., Matata B.M. Oxidative stress as a mediator of cardiovascular disease. Oxid. Med. Cell. Longev. 2009, 2:259-269.
40. Ercal N., Treeratphan P., Hammond T.C., et al. In vivo indices of oxidative stress in lead-exposed C57BL/6 mice are reduced by treatment with meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid or N-acetylcysteine. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 1996, 21:157-161.
41. Ercal N., Gurer-Orhan H., Aykin-Burns N. Toxic metals and oxidative stress part I: mechanisms involved in metal-induced oxidative damage. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2001, 1:529-539.
42. Ewers U. WHO guidelines for air quality in Europe. Offentl. Gesundheitswes. 1988, 50:626-629.
43. Flora G.J., Seth P.K. Alterations in some membrane properties in rat brain following exposure to lead. Cytobios 2000, 103:103-109.
44. Foster M.W., McMahon T.J., Stamler J.S. S-nitrosylation in health and disease. Trends Mol. Med. 2003, 9:160-168.
45. Gajek J., Zyśko D., Chlebda E. Heart rate variability in workers chronically exposed to lead. Kardiol. Pol. 2004, 61:21-30.
46. Gatagonova T.M. Characteristics of the serum lipids in workers of lead industry. Med. Tr. Prom. Ekol. 1994, 12:17-21.
47. Gatagonova T.M. Bioelectrical activity of the myocardium and cardiac pump function in workers engaged in lead production. Gig. Sanit. 1995, 3:16-19.
48. Gatagonova T.M. Changes of regional hemodynamics in lead manufacturing workers. Gig. Sanit. 1995, 2:16-17.
49. Gatagonova T.M. Functional state of the cardiovascular system in workers employed in lead production. Med. Tr. Prom. Ekol. 1995, 1:15-22.
50. Gennart J.P., Bernard A., Lauwerys R. Assessment of thyroid, testes, kidney and autonomic nervous system function in lead-exposed workers. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 1992, 64:49-57.
51. Gonick H.C., Ding Y., Bondy S.C., et al. Lead-induced hypertension: interplay of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species. Hypertension 1997, 30:1487-1492.
52. Gotto A.M. Role of C-reactive protein in coronary risk reduction: focus on primary prevention. Am. J. Cardiol. 2007, 99:718-725.
53. Graham I., Atar D., Borch-Johnsen K., et al. European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice: executive summary, Fourth Joint Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and other societies on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice (constituted by representatives of nine societies and by invited experts). Eur. J. Cardiovasc. Prev. Rehabil. 2007, 14:E1-40.
54. Greenland P., Knoll M.D., Stamler J., et al. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA 2003, 290:891-897.
55. Grobe A.C., Wells S.M., Benavidez E., et al. Increased oxidative stress in lambs with increased pulmonary blood flow and pulmonary hypertension: role of NADPH oxidase and endothelial NO synthase. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell. Mol. Physiol. 2006, 290:1069-1077.
56. Grundy S.M., Pasternak R., Greenland P., et al. Assessment of cardiovascular risk by use of multiple-risk-factor assessment equations: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1999, 34:1348-1359.
57. Gutteridge J.M., Halliwell B. Free radicals and antioxidants in the year 2000, A historical look to the future. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 2000, 899:136-147.
58. Gzyl J. Lead and cadmium contamination of soil and vegetables in the Upper Silesia region of Poland. Sci. Total Environ. 1990, 96:199-209.
59. Hamurcu Z., Donmez H., Saraymen R., et al. Micronucleus frequencies in workers exposed to lead, zinc, and cadmium. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 2001, 83:97-102.
60. Han S.G., Kim Y., Kashon M.L., et al. Correlates of oxidative stress and free-radical activity in serum from asymptomatic shipyard welders. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2005, 172:1541-1548.
61. Hashmi N.S., Kachru D.N., Tandon S.K. Interrelationship between iron deficiency and lead intoxication (Part 1). Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 1989, 22:287-297.
62. Heitzer T., Schlinzig T., Krohn K., et al. Endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and risk of cardiovascular events in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 2001, 104:2673-2678.
63. Hertz-Picciotto I., Croft J. Review of the relation between blood lead and blood pressure. Epidemiol. Rev. 1993, 15:352-373.
64. Higashi Y., Sasaki S., Nakagawa K., et al. Endothelial function and oxidative stress in renovascular hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 346:1954-1962.
65. Hindorff L.A., Heckbert S.R., Psaty B.M., et al. beta(2)-Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms and determinants of cardiovascular risk: the Cardiovascular Health Study. Am. J. Hypertens. 2005, 18:392-397.
66. Hori M., Nishida K. Oxidative stress and left ventricular remodelling after myocardial infarction. Cardiovasc. Res. 2009, 81:457-464.
67. Hsu P.C., Guo Y.L. Antioxidant nutrients and lead toxicity. Toxicology 2002, 180:33-44.
68. Hsu P.C., Hsu C.C., Liu M.Y., et al. Lead-induced changes in spermatozoa function and metabolism. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 1998, 55:45-64.
69. Huang X.P., Feng Z.Y., Zhai W.L., et al. Chromosomal aberrations and sister chromatid exchanges in workers exposed to lead. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 1988, 1:382-387.
70. Ishida M., Ishizaki M., Yamada Y. Decreases in postural change in finger blood flow in ceramic painters chronically exposed to low level lead. Am. J. Ind. Med. 1996, 29:547-553.
71. Ito Y., Niiya Y., Kurita H., et al. Serum lipid peroxide level and blood superoxide dismutase activity in workers with occupational exposure to lead. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 1985, 56:119-127.
72. Jackson R., Chambless L.E., Yang K., et al. Differences between respondents and nonrespondents in a multicenter community-based study vary by gender ethnicity, The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study Investigators. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1996, 49:1441-1446.
73. Jakubowski M. Biological levels of lead in residents of Poland. Med. Pr. 1993, 44:15-34.
74. Jakubowski M., Trzcinka-Ochocka M., Raźniewska G., et al. Blood lead levels in industrial workers in Poland. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 1998, 11:59-67.
75. Jeay S., Pianetti S., Kagan H.M., et al. Lysyl oxidase inhibits ras-mediated transformation by preventing activation of NF-kappa B. Mol. Cell. Biol. 2003, 23:2251-2263.
76. Jhun H.J., Kim H., Paek D.M. The association between blood metal concentrations and heart rate variability: a cross-sectional study. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 2005, 78:243-247.
77. Kaczmarek-Wdowiak B., Andrzejak R., Skoczyńska A., et al. The effect of chronic exposure to lead and cadmium on lipid peroxidation in the rat brain. Med. Pr. 2004, 55:403-410.
78. Kamińska T., Filar J., Madej E., et al. Modification of bovine interferon and tumor necrosis factor production by lead in vivo and in vitro. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsz) 1998, 46:323-328.
79. Kasperczyk S., Birkner E., Kasperczyk A., et al. Lipids, lipid peroxidation and 7-ketocholesterol in workers exposed to lead. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2005, 24:287-295.
80. Kelada S.N., Shelton E., Kaufmann R.B., et al. Delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genotype and lead toxicity: a HuGE review. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2001, 154:1-13.
81. Keller H., Dreyer C., Medin J., et al. Fatty acids and retinoids control lipid metabolism through activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-retinoid X receptor heterodimers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1993, 90:2160-2164.
82. Kieltyka L., Urbina E.M., Tang R., et al. Framingham risk score is related to carotid artery intima-media thickness in both white and black young adults: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Atherosclerosis 2003, 170:125-130.
83. Kirkby H., Gyntelberg F. Blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk factors of long-term exposure to lead. Scand. J. Work Environ. Health 1985, 11:15-19.
84. Korge P., Ping P., Weiss J.N. Reactive oxygen species production in energized cardiac mitochondria during hypoxia/reoxygenation: modulation by nitric oxide. Circ. Res. 2008, 103:873-880.
85. Kośmider S., Petelenz T. Electrocardiographic studies in cases of chronic occupational lead poisoning. Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. 1961, 31:1349-1357.
86. Krocova Z., Macela A., Kroca M., et al. The immunomodulatory effect(s) of lead and cadmium on the cells of immune system in vitro. Toxicol. In Vitro 2000, 14:33-40.
87. Kromhout D., Wibowo A.A., Herber R.F., et al. Trace metals and coronary heart disease risk indicators in 152 elderly men (the Zutphen Study). Am. J. Epidemiol. 1985, 122:378-385.
88. Lawton L.J., Donaldson W.E. Lead-induced tissue fatty acid alterations and lipid peroxidation. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 1991, 28:83-97.
89. Lee B.K., Lee G.S., Stewart W.F., et al. Associations of blood pressure and hypertension with lead dose measures and polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109:383-389.
90. Likholat E.A., Anan'eva T.V., Antoniuk S.V. Lipid peroxidation in the lungs upon inhalation exposure to low concentrations of lead salts. Ukr. Biokhim. Zh. 2000, 72:68-71.
91. Lip G.Y., Edmunds E., Nuttall S.L., et al. Oxidative stress in malignant and non-malignant phase hypertension. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2002, 16:333-336.
92. Ma J., Hennekens C.H., Ridker P.M., et al. A prospective study of fibrinogen and risk of myocardial infarction in the Physicians' Health Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1999, 33:1347-1352.
93. Manolio T. Novel risk markers and clinical practice. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 349:1587-1589.
94. Marchwińska E., Kucharski R., Gzyl J. Cadmium and lead concentrations in potato samples from various regions of Poland. Rocz. Panstw. Zakl. Hig. 1984, 35:113-118.
95. Marques M., Millás I., Jiménez A., et al. Alteration of the soluble guanylate cyclase system in the vascular wall of lead-induced hypertension in rats. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2001, 12:2594-2600.
96. Mattson D., Bradbury C.M., Bisht K.S., et al. Heat shock and the activation of AP-1 and inhibition of NF-kappa B DNA-binding activity: possible role of intracellular redox status. Int. J. Hyperthermia 2004, 20:224-233.
97. McGowan C. Influence of vitamin B6 status on aspects of lead poisoning in rats. Toxicol. Lett. 1989, 47:87-93.
98. Montenegro M.F., Barbosa F., Sandrim V.C., et al. A polymorphism in the delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase gene modifies plasma/whole blood lead ratio. Arch. Toxicol. 2006, 80:394-398.
99. Murata K., Araki S. Autonomic nervous system dysfunction in workers exposed to lead, zinc, and copper in relation to peripheral nerve conduction: a study of R-R interval variability. Am. J. Ind. Med. 1991, 20:663-671.
100. Murata K., Araki S., Yokoyama K., et al. Autonomic and central nervous system effects of lead in female glass workers in China. Am. J. Ind. Med. 1995, 28:233-244.
101. Muzi G., Murgia N., Dell'Omo M., et al. Effects of inorganic lead exposure on the autonomic nervous system and on the variability of heart rate among workers at a battery plant. G. Ital. Med. Lav. Ergon. 2005, 27:46-50.
102. Nawrot T.S., Thijs L., Den Hond E.M., et al. An epidemiological re-appraisal of the association between blood pressure and blood lead: a meta-analysis. J. Hum. Hypertens. 2002, 16:123-131.
103. Niu Q., Li Z., Abbritti G. Study on the changes of heart-rate in lead-exposed workers. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu 1998, 27:9-11.
104. Onalaja A.O., Claudio L. Genetic susceptibility to lead poisoning. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108(Suppl. 1):23-28.
105. Oral H. Post-operative atrial fibrillation and oxidative stress: a novel causal mechanism or another biochemical epiphenomenon?. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008, 51:75-76.
106. Othman A.I., El Missiry M.A. Role of selenium against lead toxicity in male rats. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol. 1998, 12:345-349.
107. Palatini P., Casiglia E., Pauletto P., et al. Relationship of tachycardia with high blood pressure and metabolic abnormalities: a study with mixture analysis in three populations. Hypertension 1997, 30:1267-1273.
108. Palus J., Rydzynski K., Dziubaltowska E., et al. Genotoxic effects of occupational exposure to lead and cadmium. Mutat. Res. 2003, 540:19-28.
109. Patra R.C., Swarup D., Dwivedi S.K. Antioxidant effects of alpha tocopherol, ascorbic acid and l-methionine on lead induced oxidative stress to the liver, kidney and brain in rats. Toxicology 2001, 162:81-88.
110. Poreogonekba R., Skoczyńska A., Derkacz A., et al. The evaluation of the serum homocysteine concentration in workers occupationally exposed to lead. Adv. Clin. Exp. Med. 2005, 14:537-543.
111. Poreogonekba R., Pocztek K., Gać P., et al. SNP rs198389 (T-381C) polymorphism in the B-type natriuretic peptide gene promoter in patients with atherosclerotic renovascular hypertension. Pol. Arch. Med. Wewn. 2009, 119:219-224.
112. Poreogonekba R., Gać P., Poreogonekba M., et al. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and structural changes in carotid arteries in normotensive workers occupationally exposed to lead. Hum. Exp. Toxicol. 2010.
113. Poreogonekba R., Gać P., Poreogonekba M., et al. Relationship between chronic exposure to lead, cadmium and manganese, blood pressure values and incidence of arterial hypertension. Med. Pr. 2010, 61:5-14.
114. Poreogonekba R., Gać P., Poreogonekba M., et al. Tachycardia as an independent risk factor in chronic lead poisoning. Electrocardiology 2009 2009, 251-261. JAKS Publishing Company, Wroclaw. M. Sobieszczańska, J. Jagielski, P.W. Macfarlane (Eds.).
115. Poreogonekba R., Gać P., Poreogonekba M., et al. The relationship between occupational exposure to lead and manifestation of cardiovascular complications in persons with arterial hypertension. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2010, 249:41-46.
116. Poreogonekba R., Poreogonekba M., Gać P., et al. Electrocardiographic changes in workers occupationally exposed to lead. Ann. Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 2010.
117. Poreogonekba R., Poreogonekba M., Gać P., et al. Impaired endothelial function assessed by flow-mediated vasodilatation in workers occupationally exposed to lead. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2010, 23:266-270.
118. Pundziute G., Schuijf J.D., Jukema J.W., et al. Prognostic value of multislice computed tomography coronary angiography in patients with known or suspected coronary artery disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2007, 49:62-70.
119. Qian H., Neplioueva V., Shetty G.A., et al. Nitric oxide synthase gene therapy rapidly reduces adhesion molecule expression and inflammatory cell infiltration in carotid arteries of cholesterol-fed rabbits. Circulation 1999, 99:2979-2982.
120. Ross R. Atherosclerosis-an inflammatory disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999, 340:115-126.
121. Rudnicka A.R., Mt-Isa S., Meade T.W. Associations of plasma fibrinogen and factor VII clotting activity with coronary heart disease and stroke: prospective cohort study from the screening phase of the Thrombosis Prevention Trial. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2006, 4:2405-2410.
122. Sakai T., Morita Y., Araki T., et al. Relationship between delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genotypes and heme precursors in lead workers. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2000, 38:355-360.
123. Sarić M. Ischemic heart disease, circulatory diseases and kidney diseases in a population living near a lead smelter. Arh. Hig. Rada. Toksikol. 1981, 32:3-19.
124. Schroeder S., Enderle M.D., Ossen R., et al. Noninvasive determination of endothelium-mediated vasodilation as a screening test for coronary artery disease: pilot study to assess the predictive value in comparison with angina pectoris, exercise electrocardiography, and myocardial perfusion imaging. Am. Heart J. 1999, 138:731-739.
125. Schulz E., Jansen T., Wenzel P., et al. Nitric oxide, tetrahydrobiopterin, oxidative stress, and endothelial dysfunction in hypertension. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 2008, 10:1115-1126.
126. Schwartz J. Lead, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease in men. Arch. Environ. Health 1995, 50:31-37.
127. Schwartz B.S., Lee B.K., Lee G.S., et al. Associations of blood lead, dimercaptosuccinic acid-chelatable lead, and tibia lead with polymorphisms in the vitamin D receptor and δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genes. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108:949-954.
128. Scinicariello F., Murray H.E., Moffett D.B., et al. Lead and delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase polymorphism: where does it lead? A meta-analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115:35-41.
129. Seccareccia F., Pannozzo F., Dima F., et al. Heart rate as a predictor of mortality: the MATISS project. Am. J. Public Health 2001, 91:1258-1263.
130. Shalan M.G., Mostafa M.S., Hassouna M.M., et al. Amelioration of lead toxicity on rat liver with Vitamin C and silymarin supplements. Toxicology 2005, 206:1-15.
131. Sharp D.S., Becker C.E., Smith A.H. Chronic low-level lead exposure, its role in the pathogenesis of hypertension. Med. Toxicol. 1987, 2:210-232.
132. Shcherbak E.A. ECG changes in workers exposed to a hot microclimate, noise and lead aerosols. Vrach. Delo. 1988, 2:106-108.
133. Silbergeld E.K. Facilitative mechanisms of lead as a carcinogen. Mutat. Res. 2003, 533:121-133.
134. Silbergeld E.K., Waalkes M., Rice J.M. Lead as a carcinog experimental evidence mechanisms of action. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2000, 38:316-323.
135. Skoczyńska A. Lipid peroxidation as a toxic mode of action for lead and cadmium. Med. Pr. 1997, 48:197-203.
136. Skoczyńska A. Genetic aspects of hypertensive effect of lead. Med. Pr. 2008, 59:325-332.
137. Skoczyńska A., Smolik R., Jeleń M. Lipid abnormalities in rats given small doses of lead. Arch. Toxicol. 1993, 67:200-204.
138. Skoczyńska A., Sieradzki A., Andrzejak R., Poreogonekba R., et al. Serum selectin E level in lead-exposed workers. Med. Pr. 2000, 51:115-122.
139. Skoczyńska A., Wróbel J., Andrzejak R. Lead-cadmium interaction effect on the responsiveness of rat mesenteric vessels to norepinephrine and angiotensin II. Toxicology 2001, 162:157-170.
140. Skoczyńska A., Poreogonekba R., Derkacz A. Endothelial dysfunction in workers exposed to lead. Atherosclerosis: Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Treatment 2002, 77-81. Monduzzi Editore, Bologna. G.M. Kostner, K.M. Kostner (Eds.).
141. Skoczyńska A., Poreogonekba R., Sieradzki A., et al. The impact of lead and cadmium on the immune system. Med. Pr. 2002, 53:259-264.
142. Skoczyńska A., Gruber K., Belowska-Bień K., et al. Risk of cadrdiovascular diseases in lead-exposed workers of crystal glassworks, part I. Effect of lead on blood pressure and lipid metabolism. Med. Pr. 2007, 58:475-483.
143. Smith S.C., Jackson R., Pearson T.A., et al. Principles for national and regional guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention: a scientific statement from the World Heart and Stroke Forum. Circulation 2004, 109:3112-3121.
144. Sroczyński J., Urbańska-Bonenberg L., Twardowska-Saucha K., et al. Health status of workers chronically exposed to lead. Pol. Tyg. Lek. 1985, 40:221-223.
145. Sroczyński J., Biskupek K., Piotrowski J., et al. Effect of occupational exposure to lead, zinc and cadmium on various indicators of the circulatory system of metallurgical workers. Med. Pr. 1990, 41:152-158.
146. Staessen J.A., Bulpitt C.J., Fagard R., et al. Hypertension caused by low-level lead exposure: myth or fact?. J. Cardiovasc. Risk 1994, 1:87-97.
147. Staessen J.A., Roels H., Lauwerys R.R., et al. Low-level lead exposure and blood pressure. J. Hum. Hypertens. 1995, 9:303-328.
148. Stampfer M.J., Ridker P.M., Dzau V.J. Risk factor criteria. Circulation 2004, 109:IV3-5.
149. Steenland K., Boffetta P. Lead and cancer in humans: where are we now?. Am. J. Ind. Med. 2000, 38:295-299.
150. Steinmetz-Beck A., Szahidewicz-Krupska E., Beck B., Poreba R., et al. Genotoxicity effect of chronic lead exposure assessed using the comet assay. Med. Pr. 2005, 56:295-302.
151. Stojek E., Skoczyńska A. Lead effect on vascular endothelium. Med. Pr. 2003, 54:87-93.
152. Stozinić S., Colaković B. Harmful effects of lead on the heart and blood vessels. Srp. Arh. Celok. Lek. 1980, 108:721-731.
153. Sugawara E., Nakamura K., Miyake T., et al. Lipid peroxidation and concentration of glutathione in erythrocytes from workers exposed to lead. Br. J. Ind. Med. 1991, 48:239-242.
154. Teruya K., Sakurai H., Omae K., et al. Effect of lead on cardiac parasympathetic function. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 1991, 62:549-553.
155. Timonen K.L., Vanninen E., de Hartog J., et al. Effects of ultrafine and fine particulate and gaseous air pollution on cardiac autonomic control in subjects with coronary artery disease: the ULTRA study. J. Expo. Sci. Environ. Epidemiol. 2006, 16:332-341.
156. Touyz R.M., Schiffrin E.L. Reactive oxygen species in vascular biology: implications in hypertension. Histochem. Cell Biol. 2004, 122:339-352.
157. Trzcinka-Ochocka M., Jakubowski M., Raźniewska G. Asessment of occupational exposure to lead in Poland. Med. Pr. 2005, 56:395-404.
158. Trzcinka-Ochocka M., Jakubowski M., Nowak U. Effectiveness of preventive actions for lead exposed workers: an assessment based on biological monitoring. Med. Pr. 2006, 57:537-542.
159. Valko M., Morris H., Cronin M.T. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Curr. Med. Chem. 2005, 12:1161-1208.
160. Valko M., Rhodes C.J., Moncol J., et al. Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2006, 160:1-40.
161. Vassalle C., Pratali L., Boni C., et al. An oxidative stress score as a combined measure of the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant counterparts in patients with coronary artery disease. Clin. Biochem. 2008, 41:1162-1167.
162. Vaziri N.D., Ding Y., Ni Z. Nitric oxide synthase expression in the course of lead-induced hypertension. Hypertension 1999, 34:558-562.
163. Vaziri N.D., Liang K., Ding Y. Increased nitric oxide inactivation by reactive oxygen species in lead-induced hypertension. Kidney Int. 1999, 56:1492-1498.
164. Wagner M., Klein C.L., Kleinert H., et al. Heavy metal ion induction of adhesion molecules and cytokines in human endothelial cells: the role of NF-kappaB, I kappaB-alpha and AP-1. Pathobiology 1997, 65:241-252.
165. Wald D.S., Law M., Morris J.K. Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease: evidence on causality from a meta-analysis. BMJ 2002, 325:1202-1209.
166. Wang T.J., Gona P., Larson M.G., et al. Multiple biomarkers and the risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension 2007, 49:432-438.
167. Wetmur J.G., Kaya A.H., Plewinska M., et al. Molecular characterization of the human delta-aminolevulinate dehydratase 2 (ALAD2) allele: implications for molecular screening of individuals for genetic susceptibility to lead poisoning. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1991, 49:757-763.
168. White H.D., Norris R.M., Brown M.A., et al. Left ventricular end-systolic volume as the major determinant of survival after recovery from myocardial infarction. Circulation 1987, 76:44-51.
169. WHO Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional Publications. European Series No. 91 2000, World Health Organization, Copenhagen.
170. Winyard P.G., Moody C.J., Jacob C. Oxidative activation of antioxidant defence. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2005, 30:453-461.
171. Wright C.E., Tallan H.H., Lin Y.Y., et al. Taurine: biological update. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1986, 55:427-453.
172. Wu F.Y., Chang P.W., Wu C.C., et al. Correlations of blood lead with DNA-protein cross-links and sister chromatid exchanges in lead workers. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 2002, 11:287-290.
173. Yücesoy B., Turhan A., Ure M., et al. Effects of occupational lead and cadmium exposure on some immunoregulatory cytokine levels in man. Toxicology 1997, 123:143-147.
174. Zawadzki M., Poreogonekba R., Gać P. Mechanisms and toxic effects of lead on the cardiovascular system. Med. Pr. 2006, 57:543-549.
175. Zhang Y.M., Liu X.Z., Lu H., et al. Lipid peroxidation and ultrastructural modifications in brain after perinatal exposure to lead and/or cadmium in rat pups. Biomed. Environ. Sci. 2009, 22:423-429.