What role for national competition authorities in protecting non-competition interests after lisbon?

European Law Review

Volumn 35, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 636-659

  Lavrijssen, Saskia ^a  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Economics and law; EU law; National competition authorities; Netherlands; Public interest; Services of general economic interest

Indexed keywords

EID: 79751503313     PISSN: 03075400     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (224)

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2. (2010)47 C.M.L. Rev. 1199.
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4. See, e.g.: Commission notice, Guidelines on the applicability of Article 81 EC to horizontal co-operation agreements, [2001] OJ C3/2 and Guidelines on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty [2004] OJ ClOl/97.
5. Guidelines on the application of Article 81(3) of the Treaty, para. 42.
6. See also the White Paper on modernization of the rules implementing Articles 85 and 86 [1999] OJ C 132/1.
7. European Commission, Draft Communication from the Commission, Guidelines on the Applicability of Article 101 TFEU to horizontal co-operation agreements, SEC(2010) 528/2.
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9. G. Monti, "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002) 39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1090
10. O. Odudu, The Boundaries of EC Competition Law, the Scope of Article 81 EC (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 60
11. S. de Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, the Functioning of the Internal Market and the Development of Horizontal and Flanking Policies (Groningen: Europa Law Publishing, 2005), p.221
12. P. Kalbfleisch, "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Monti et al. (eds), Economic Law and Justice in Time of Globalization (Berlin: Nomos, 2007), pp.455-474
13. T. Prosser, The Limits of Competition Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p.27
14. R. Wesseling, The Modernisation of Antitrust Law (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2000), pp.101-113.
15. See e.g. "Many achievements, more to do", Opening speech by Neelie Kroes at the International Bar Association conference, Brussels, March 12, 2009. Recently the Commission reduced the fine of five undertakings because of their likely inability to pay the fine given their financial situation.
16. See European Commission, IP/10/790, Commission fines 17 bathroom equipment manufacturers in price fixing cartel.
17. See L. Parret, "Do we still know what we are protecting" TILEC Discussion paper 2009-10.
18. B.J. Drijber, "Het hervormingsverdrag van de EU: stap vooruit of stap achteruit? (2007) Markt en Mededinging 131.
19. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.68-70.
20. See, e.g. also art.9 TFEU (new).
21. GlaxoSmithKline Services Unlimited v Commission (C-SO 1/06 P) October 6, 2009 at [62]-[63
22. T-Mobile Netherlands BVv Raad van Bestuur van de Nederlandse Mededingingsautoriteit (C-8/08) [2009] 5 C.M.L.R. 11 at [38]-[39].
23. For a discussion of these goals, see G. Monti, "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002)39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1059-1069.
24. Parret, "Do we still know what we are protecting" TILEC Discussion paper 2009-10.
25. Prosser, The Limits of Competition Law, 2005, Ch.8.
26. Kalbfleisch, "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in lime of Globalization, 2007, p.468.
27. Wetenschappelijke Raad voor het Regeringsbeleid, Her borgen van her publiek belang (The Hague: SDU 2002), p.46.
28. J.W. van de Gronden and K.J.M. Mortelmans (eds), Mededinging en niet-economische belangen (Deventer: Kluwer, 2001).
29. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p.8
30. referring to K.J.M. Mortelmans, "De interne markt en het facettenbeleid: nationaal beleid, vrij verkeer of harmonisatie" (1994) S.E.W. 237.
31. Article 9 TFEU (new), art.l1 TFEU (ex art.6 EC), art.l2 TFEU (ex art.153(2)EC), art.13 TFEU (new), art.168 TFEU (ex art.152 EC), art.167 TFEU (ex art.151 EC).
32. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p. 11 ff.
33. See also Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.53.
34. See also Services of general economic interest, including social services of general interest: a new European commitment COM(2007) 725
35. White Paper on services on general interest COM(2004) 374 final.
36. Kalbfleisch "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in lime of Globalization, 2007, p. 467
37. E. van Damme & M.P. Schinkel (eds), Marktwerking en Publieke belangen (Amsterdam: Koninklijke Vereniging voor de Staathuishoudkunde 2009).
38. For a discussion of the concept of welfare from the perspective of welfare economics, see L. Kaplow and S. Shavell, Fairness vs Welfare (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006), pp. 18-38.
39. Very often the notion of well-being is used to describe a broad welfare concept: B. Baarsma and J. Theeuwes, "Publiek belang en marktwerking: Argumenten voor een welvaartseconomische aanpak" in Marklwerking en Publieke belangen, 2009, p. 31.
40. J.E. Stiglitz and C.E. Walsh, Economics, 4th edn (New York/London: W.W. Norton & Company, 2006), pp. 1-225.
41. Economists tend to differ as to the categorization of the different types of market failure. See Kalbfleisch, "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in lime of Globalization, p.467
42. Stiglitz and Walsh, Economics, 2006, p. 239 ff.
43. F. van Doom, Resale Price Maintenance in EC Competition Law, a law and economics perspective, Master's thesis in law and economics, 2009
44. Utrecht University and Cseres, "The Controversies of the Consumer Welfare Standard" (2007) 3 Competition Law Review 121, 127 ff.
45. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.76.
46. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.7
47. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.7
48. For an analysis of six methods by which to integrate public policy considerations in competition decisions, see G. Monti, EC competition law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 2007), pp. 113-117.
49. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009
50. Monti, "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002) 39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057
51. Odudu, The Boundaries of EC Competition Law, 2005, p.160
52. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p. 221
53. Kalbfleisch, "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Just ice in lime of Globalization, 2007, pp.455-474
54. Prosser, The Limits of Competition Law, 2005, p.27
55. Wesseling, The Modernisation ofAntitrust Law, 2000, pp. 101-113.
56. For an analysis of the personal scope of competition law, see De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p. 104.
57. For an analysis of the role of non-competition interests in art. 102 TFEU, see E. Rousseva, "Abuse of Dominant Position Defences" in: G. Amato and C.D. Ehlerman (eds), EC Competition Law, a critical assessment (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2007), p. 389 ff.
58. See art.3(l) and (2) of Regulation 1/2003.
59. J.W. van de Gronden and S.A. de Vries, "Independent competition authorities in the EU" (2006)2 Utrecht Law Review 32.
60. Regulation 139/2004 on the Control of concentrations between undertakings [2004] OJ L24/1.
61. Albany International B V v Stichting Bedrj/fspensioenfonds Textielindustrie (C-67/96) [1999] E.C.R. 1-5751
62. [2000] 4 C.M.L.R. 446
63. with annotation by L. Gyselen (2000)37 C.M.L. Rev. 441.
64. See also H. Schweitzer, "Competition Law and Public Policy, the Example of Article 81", EUI Working papers, Law 2007/30, p.4.
65. Woutres v Algemene Raad van de Nederlandse Orde van Advocaten (C-309/99) [2002] E.C.R. 1-1577
66. [2002] 4 C.M.L.R. 27 at [97
67. and Meca-Medina v Commission (C-519/04 P) [2006] E.C.R. 1-6991
68. [2006] 5 C.M.L.R. 18 at [42].
69. See G. Davies, "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 European Competition Journal 549, 567.
70. Davies "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 European Competition Journal 549, 567.
71. Monti "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002)39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1086 ff.
72. Monti "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002)39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1086 ff.
73. See, e.g. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p. 63
74. Davies, "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 European Competition Journal 549, 568
75. who advocate, especially after Meca-Medina (C-S 19/04 P) [2006] E.C.R. 1-6991
76. [2006] 5 C.M.L.R. 18, a broad reading of the ECJ case law.
77. For a contrary view, see E. Loozen, "Professional Ethics and Restraints of Competition" (2006) 31 E.L. Rev. 28
78. Schweitzer, "Competition Law and Public Policy, the Example of Article 81", EUI Working papers, Law 2007/30, p.4.
79. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p.199 ff
80. Monti, "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002) 39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1069-1978
81. Schweitzer, "Competition Law and Public Policy, the Example of Article 81", EUI Working papers, Law 2007/30, pp.6-8.
82. Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p. 99.
83. See Metro SB-Grossmärkte GmbH & Co KG v Commission (C-26/76) [1977] E.C.R. 1875
84. [1978] 2 C.M.L.R.I
85. Métropole télévision SA v Commission (T-528/93) [1996] E.C.R. 11-649
86. [1996] 5 C.M.L.R. 386.
87. Schweitzer, "Competition Law and Public Policy, the Example of Article 81", EUI Working papers, Law 2007/30, p.7.
88. CECED Commission Decision of Januaiy 24, 1999 [2000] OJ L187/47.
89. Monti, "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002) 39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1075
90. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p.205
91. H. Vedder, Competition Law and Environmental Protection in Europe: Towards Sustainability (Groningen: Europa Law Publishing, 2003), pp. 66-170.
92. Monti, "Article 81 EC and Public Policy" (2002)39 C.M.L. Rev. 1057, 1075 and arts 3 TEU and 11 TFEU.
93. Guidelines on the application of art.8 1 EC to horizontal agreements [2001] OJ C3/2 at [31]-[36].
94. Guidelines on the application ofart.81(3) EC [2004] OJ C101/97 at [33
95. Guidelines on horizontal agreements [2001] OJ C3/2 at [189]-[197].
96. W. Sauter, "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008) 33 E.L. Rev. 167.
97. Services of general economic interest, including social services of general interest: a new European commitment COM(2007) 725, p.3.
98. There is a third condition found in the TEU itself, meaning that the interests of the EU may not be harmed, but this condition has not played an important role in the ECJ case law so far. See A. Jones and B. Sufrmn, EC Competition Law-Text, cases, and materials (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), p.667.
99. For a discussion, see Sauter, "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008) 33 E.L. Rev. 167.
100. Sauter "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008) 33 E.L. Rev. 167, 174-176.
101. British United Provident Assocjation Ltd (BUPA) v Commission (T-289/03) [2008] E.C.R. 11-81
102. [2009] 2 C.M.L.R. 41.
103. Protocol 26.
104. See e.g. Commission v Netherlands (C-157194) [1997] E.C.R. 1-5699
105. [1998] 2 C.M.L.R. 373
106. Criminal Proceedings against Corbeau(C-320101) [1993] E.C.R. 1-2533
107. [1995] 4 C.M.L.R. 621
108. Firma Ambulanz Glöckner v Landkreis Sudwestpfalz (C-475/99) [2002] E.C.R. 1-8089
109. [2002] 4 C.M.L.R. 21
110. Services of general economic interest, including social services of general interest: a new European commitment COM(2007) 725, p.10.
111. Sauter "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008)33 E.L. Rev. 167, 176 ff.
112. See BUPA (T-289/03) [2008] E.C.R. 11-81
113. [2009] 2 C.M.L.R. 41 at [179]-[184
114. Commission v Netherlands (C-157/94) [1997] E.C.R. 1-5699
115. [1998] 2 C.M.L.R. 373.
116. Sauter "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008) 33 E.L. Rev. 167, 184.
117. Corbeau (C-320/0l) [1993] E.C.R. 1-2533
118. [1995] 4 C.M.L.R. 621
119. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, pp. 163-165
120. Sauter, "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008) 33 E.L. Rev. 167.
121. Commission v Netherlands (C-I 57/94) [1997] E.C.R. 1-5699
122. [1998] 2 C.M.L.R. 373
123. Corbeau (C-320/01) [1993] 4 E.C.R. 1-2533
124. [1995] 4 C.M.L.R. 621
125. and Ambulanz Glöckner (C-475199) [2002] E.C.R. 1-8089
126. [2002] 4 C.M.L.R. 21.
127. A.G. Jacobs suggested in his opinion in AOK Bundesverband v Ichthyol-Gesellschafi Cordes (C-264/0 1) [2004] ECR 1-2493 that the restrictive measures of undertakings entrusted with an SGEI should be subjected to a proportionality test comparable to that for state measures.
128. Article 21(4) of Merger Regulation 139/2004.
129. Jones and Sufrmn, EC Competition Law-Text, cases, and materials, 2008, p.985
130. R. Whish, Competition Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 869-840
131. De Vries, Tensions within the Internal Market, 2005, p. 241.
132. See for example Lyonnaise des EauxlNorthumbrian Water (M.567
133. Newspaper Publishing (M.423).
134. European Commission, "Guidelines on the assessment of horizontal mergers under the Council regulation on the control of concentrations between undertakings" [2004] OJ C3 1/5.
135. Horizontal merger guidelines [2001] OJ C3/2 at [79] ff.
136. Horizontal merger guidelines [2001] OJ C3/2 at [85].
137. If national legislation has precluded any scope for autonomous private conduct that may distort competition, the regulatory framework acts as a shield against the consequences of an infringement of art. 101 TFEU. See e.g. Commission v Ladbroke Racing Ltd (C-379195 P) [1997] E.C.R. 1-6265
138. [1998] 4 C.M.L.R. 27 at [33] et seq.
139. Bundesanstalt für den Güterfernverkehr v Gebrüder Re & Co KG (C-I 85/91) [1993] E.C.R. 1-5801
140. [1995] 5 C.M.L.R. 145 at [14
141. Germany v Delta Schiffahrts- und Speditionsgesellschafi GmbH (C-153/93) [1994] E.C.R. 1-2517
142. [1996] 4 C.M.L.R. 21 at [14
143. Criminal Proceedings against Arduino (C-35/99) [2002] E.C.R. 1-1529
144. [2002] 4 C.M.L.R. 25 at [34
145. Consorzio Industrie Fiammjferi (CIF) v Autorità Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercalo (C-198/Ol) [2003] E.C.R. 1-8055
146. [2003] 5 C.M.L.R. 16 at [45].
147. CIF(C-198/01) [2003] E.C.R. 1-8055
148. [2003] 5 C.M.L.R. 16 at [46].
149. See J. Baquero Cruz, "The State Action Doctrine" in EC Competition Law, a critical assessment, 2007, p.588.
150. Baquero Cruz, "The State Action Doctrine" in EC Competition Law, a critical assessment, 2007, p.588.
151. Arduino (C-35/99) [2002] E.C.R. 1-1529
152. [2002] 4 C.M.L.R. 25 at [37]-[42].
153. Davies "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 Eumpean Competition Journal 549, 570.
154. The Commission suggests that it applies an intensive proportionality test when assessing non-competition arguments in the context of art. 102 TFEU, Guidance on the Commission's enforcement priorities in applying art. 102 TFEU to abusive exclusionary conduct by dominant undertakings, COM (2008) at [27]-[30].
155. Sauter, "Services of General Economic Interest and universal service in EU law" (2008) 33 E.L. Rev. 167, 186-188.
156. See also Davies, "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 European Competition Journal 549, 565, with regard to the role of state support in the context of art. 102 TFEU.
157. See also Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.86, who discusses the fact that even Commission decisions and comfort letters after 2000 showed some acceptance of the notion that public policy goals have a place in art. 101 TFEU, but there is no consistent practice.
158. See for an example: BundesKartellamt prohibits merger between municipal hospitals in Hesse, press release June 19,2009.
159. See Van de Gronden and De Vries, "Independent competition authorities in the EU" (2006)2 Utrechi Law Review 32, 49.
160. Peter Freeman, Chairman, Competition Commission, speech at the Law Society on July 21, 2008 "Is Competition everything?
161. See also Competition Commission, Market Investigation into the supply of groceries in the UK, April 30, 2008, [2.11]-[2.18].
162. Decision 51 (Stichting Stibat). See Vedder, Competition Law and Environmental Protection in Europe: Towards Sustainability, 2003, pp.391-397.
163. NMa, Annual report 2008
164. De Keuze and NMa, Annual report 2009, Belangen wegen.
165. See also NMa policy guidelines on the application of competition law in the healthcare sector 2010.
166. T.R. Ottervanger, Maatschappel verantwoord concurreren: mededingingsrecht in een veranderende wereld (inaugural lecture), Leiden University, 2010.
167. P.J. Slot et al., Inleiding Mededingingsrecht (The Hague: Boom Juridische Uitgevers, 2007), p.39.
168. Kennemerland (NMa 6108/258
169. 't Gooi (NMa 5851/211).
170. NMa, informal opinion, reference 5455-I. See for a critical assessment E.G. Litjens, "Kleine ingreep" (2009) Markt & Mededinging 161.
171. Litjens "Kleine ingreep" (2009) Markt & Mededinging 161, 164-165.
172. Ziekenhunis Walcheren-Stichting Oosterscheldeziekenhuizen (NMa 5196), with annotation by P.D. van den Berg (2009) Marki & Mededinging 153.
173. See e.g. M. Snoep, D. Schrijvershof and S. Chamalaun, "Zorgfusies getoetst, een juridisch perspectief" (2009) Markt & Mededinging 62
174. M.F.M. Canoy and W. Sauter, "Ziekenhuisfusies en publieke belangen" (2009) Markt & Mededinging 54
175. M.C.W. Janssen, K. Schep and J. van Sinderen, "Fusies van ziekenhuizen" (2009) Markt & Mededinging 44.
176. This advice is not binding, although NMa had to provide sufficient reasons as to how it took the advice into account in its final decision.
177. Guidelines on the assessment of horizontal mergers [2004] OJ C3 1/5.
178. Canoy and Sauter, "Ziekenhuisfusies en publieke belangen" (2009) Markt & Mededinging 54, 56 ff.
179. See, e.g. Landelijke Huisarisen Vereniging (Nma 2513/40) December 21, 2001
180. Amicon Zorgverzekeraar (Nma 882) December 13, 2000.
181. See W. Sauter, "Diensten van algemeen economisch belang en universele dienstverplichtingen in de gezondheidszorg" (2008) Markt en Mededinging 4.
182. BUPA (T-289/03) [2008] E.C.R. 11-81
183. [2009] 2 C.M.L.R. 41.
184. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.37-38.
185. J. Stiglitz, "The Invisible Hand and Modem Welfare Economics" NBER Working Paper Series No.3641, pp.16-18
186. Davies, "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 European Competition Journal 549, 577.
187. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.37-38.
188. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp. 41-43.
189. For a discussion of the arguments against a mixed approach, see Odudu, The Boundaries of EC Competition Law, the Scope ofArticle 81 EC, 2005, Ch.7.
190. See also Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.87-103.
191. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.89-93.
192. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.89-93.
193. This objection is less relevant for the Commission, as the Commission is a collective body and its decisions are taken on behalf of all Commissioners, including those representing policy fields other than competition.
194. For a discussion, see S. Lavrijssen & L. Hancher, "Networks on Track: From European Regulatory Networks to European Regulatory Network Agencies" (2009) 36 Legal Issues of Economic Integration 21.
195. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.38-39.
196. European governance, A White Paper COM(2001) 428 def. The UK Better Regulation Commission also uses principles of good regulation as terms of reference for assessing regulation and its enforcement (see hltp://archive. cabinetoffice.gov.uk/brc/about-us.html [Accessed September 10, 2010]). These principles were originally identified and developed by the UK Better Regulation Taskforce, the predecessor of the Commission. The principles of good regulation are laid down, e.g. in the UK Communications Act 2003 art.3(3)(a).
197. L. Hancher, P. Larouche and S. Lavrijssen, "Principles of good market governance" (2003) Journal of Network Industries 355.
198. See J.H. Jans et al., Eumpeanisation of Public Law (Groningen: Europa Law Publishing, 2007), p.23.
199. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.42.
200. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.42-43.
201. Hangher, Larouche and Lavrijssen, "Principles of good market governance" (2003) Journal of Network Industries 355, 355 ff.
202. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.228.
203. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, pp.294 ff.
204. For some suggestions on how a cost-benefit analysis can be made in practice, see Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.294.
205. Townley, Article 81 EC and Public Policy, 2009, p.298 ff.
206. When adopting a broad welfare approach one refers to consumer well-being rather than consumer welfare. See Kaplow and Shavell, Fairness vs Welfare, 2006, pp. 18-38
207. Baarsma and Theeuwes, "Publiek belang en marktwerking: Argumenten voor een welvaartseconomische aanpak" in Marktwerking en Publieke belangen, 2009.
208. See R. v Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Ex p. Fédération Européenne de Ia Sante Animale (FEDESA) (C-33l/88) [1990] ECR 1-4023
209. [1991] 1 C.M.L.R. 507.
210. Kalbfleisch "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in Time of Globalization, 2007, p.472.
211. Kalbfleisch "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in lime of Globalization, 2007, p.472
212. Davies, "Article 86 EC, The EC's Economic Approach to Competition Law and the General Interest" (2009) 5 European Competition Journal 549, 570.
213. Cf. Baquero Cruz, "The State Action Doctrine" in EC Competition Law, a critical assessment, 2007, p.589.
214. Cf. Meca-Medina (C-519/04 P) [2006] E.C.R. 1-6991
215. [2006] 5 C.M.L.R. 18, where it was not clear whether the alleged restrictive practices of the bC, that served the ethics of the sports activity concerned, were supported by a state measure.
216. Kalbfleisch, "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in lime of Globalization, 2007, p.472.
217. Cf. Meca-Medina(C-519/04 P) [2006] E.C.R. 1-6991
218. [2006] 5 C.M.L.R. 18, where the ECJ did not apply a strict proportionality test, but where it did examine scientific studies to see whether the restrictive effects of the practice concerned were proportional.
219. Kalbfleisch "The Assessment of Interests in Competition Law; A Balancing Act" in Economic Law and Justice in Time of Globalization, 2007, p.470.
220. Cf. Baquero Cruz, "The State Action Doctrine" in EC Competition Law, a critical assessment, 2007, p.589.
221. Baquero Cruz, "The State Action Doctrine" in EC Competition Law, a critical assessment, 2007, p.589.
222. CIF (C-198/01) [2003] E.C.R. 1-8055
223. [2003] 5 C.M.L.R. 16 at [48]-[50].
224. See also art.7 TFEU.