Urbanisation and infectious diseases in a globalised world

The Lancet Infectious Diseases

Volumn 11, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 131-141

  Alirol, Emilie ^a,b   Getaz, Laurent ^a,b   Stoll, Beat ^b   Chappuis, François ^a,b   Loutan, Louis ^a,b  

^a GENEVA UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; CATALYST; CHAGAS DISEASE; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; INFECTION; LEISHMANIASIS; LEPTOSPIROSIS; LYMPHATIC FILARIASIS; MALARIA; MIGRATION; PANDEMIC; PLAGUE; PNEUMONIA; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SOCIAL STATUS; TROPICS; TUBERCULOSIS; URBAN AREA; URBANIZATION; YELLOW FEVER;

COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CONTROL; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; EMIGRATION AND IMMIGRATION; HUMANS; INTERNATIONALITY; POPULATION DYNAMICS; TRAVEL; URBAN POPULATION; URBANIZATION;

EID: 78751690900     PISSN: 14733099     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70223-1     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. World Urbanization prospects: the 2009 revision UN, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/index.htm.
2. World Urbanization prospects: the 2007 revision UN, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2007/2007WUP_Highlights_web.pdf.
3. State of the world's cities 2010/2011: bridging the urban divide UN-HABITAT, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2917.
4. Satterthwaite D The transition to a predominantly urban world and its underpinnings (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.iied.org/pubs/pdfs/10550IIED.pdf.
5. The state of African cities UN-HABITAT, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2574.
6. The challenge of slums-global report on human settlements UN-HABITAT, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=1156.
7. Lopez AD, Mathers CD Measuring the global burden of disease and epidemiological transitions: 2002-2030. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2006, 100:481-499.
8. Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Ezzati M, Jamison DT, Murray CJ Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 2006, 367:1747-1757.
9. Harpham T, Tanner M Features and determinants of urban health status. Urban health in developing countries 1995, 35-47. Earthscan Publications Limited, London. T. Harpham, M. Tanner (Eds.).
10. State of the world's cities 2006/2007 UN-HABITAT, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.unhabitat.org/pmss/listItemDetails.aspx?publicationID=2101.
11. Lienhardt C From exposure to disease: the role of environmental factors in susceptibility to and development of tuberculosis. Epidemiol Rev 2001, 23:288-301.
12. Akhtar S, White F, Hasan R, et al. Hyperendemic pulmonary tuberculosis in peri-urban areas of Karachi, Pakistan. BMC Public Health 2007, 7:70.
13. Bella H, de C Marshall TF, Omer AH, Vaughan JP Migrant workers and schistosomiasis in the Gezira, Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1980, 74:36-39.
14. Dabo A, Sow MY, Sangaré L, et al. Transmission of schistosomiasis in an urban population and prevalence of intestinal helminthiasis in Bamako, Mali. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2003, 96:187-190. (in French).
15. Sarda RK, Simonsen PE, Mahikwano LF Urban transmission of urinary schistosomiasis in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Acta Trop 1985, 42:71-78.
16. Kabatereine NB, Kazibwe F, Kemijumbi J Epidemiology of schistosomiasis in Kampala, Uganda. East Afr Med J 1996, 73:795-800.
17. Louis FJ, Bilenge CM, Simarro PP, Meso VK, Lucas P, Jannin J Human African trypanosomiasis in an urban area: an emerging problem?. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2003, 96:205-208. (in French).
18. Huang YX, Manderson L The social and economic context and determinants of Schistosomiasis japonica. Acta Trop 2005, 96:223-231.
19. Ximenes RA, Southgate B, Smith PG, Neto L Guimarães Migration and urban schistosomiasis. The case of São Lourenço da Mata, northeast of Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2000, 42:209-217.
20. Reyburn H, Rowland M, Mohsen M, Khan B, Davies C The prolonged epidemic of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kabul, Afghanistan: 'bringing down the neighbourhood'. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2003, 97:170-176.
21. Progress on drinking water and sanitation: special focus on sanitation WHO, UNICEF, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp2008.pdf.
22. Guévart E, Noeske J, Solle J, Essomba, et al. Factors contributing to endemic cholera in Douala, Cameroon. Med Trop (Mars) 2006, 66:283-291. (in French).
23. Agtini MD, Soeharno R, Lesmana M, et al. The burden of diarrhoea, shigellosis, and cholera in North Jakarta, Indonesia: findings from 24 months surveillance. BMC Infect Dis 2005, 5:89.
24. Oninla SO, Owa JA, Onayade AA, Taiwo O Intestinal helminthiases among rural and urban schoolchildren in south-western Nigeria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2007, 101:705-713.
25. Ekpo UF, Odoemene SN, Mafiana CF, Sam-Wobo SO Helminthiasis and hygiene conditions of schools in Ikenne, Ogun State, Nigeria. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008, 2:e146.
26. Wagbatsoma VA, Aimiuwu U Sanitary provision and helminthiasis among school children in Benin City, Nigeria. Niger Postgrad Med J 2008, 15:105-111.
27. Mehraj V, Hatcher J, Akhtar S, Rafique G, Beg MA Prevalence and factors associated with intestinal parasitic infection among children in an urban slum of Karachi. PLoS ONE 2008, 3:e3680.
28. de Faria MT, Calderwood MS, Athanazio DA, et al. Carriage of Leptospira interrogans among domestic rats from an urban setting highly endemic for leptospirosis in Brazil. Acta Trop 2008, 108:1-5.
29. De A, Varaiya A, Mathur M, Bhat M, Karande S, Yeolekar ME An outbreak of leptospirosis in Mumbai. Indian J Med Microbiol 2002, 20:153-155.
30. Ko AI, Reis M Galvão, Dourado CM Ribeiro, Johnson WD, Riley LW Urban epidemic of severe leptospirosis in Brazil. Salvador Leptospirosis Study Group. Lancet 1999, 354:820-825.
31. Hutton G, Haller L Evaluation of the costs and benefits of water and sanitation improvements at the global level (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wsh0404.pdf.
32. SWITCH: managing water for the city of the future (accessed Oct 8, 2010). http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/index.php.
33. Moraes LR Household solid waste bagging and collection and their health implications for children living in outlying urban settlements in Salvador, Bahia State, Brazil. Cad Saude Publica 2007, 23(suppl 4):S643-S649. (in Portuguese).
34. Rego RF, Barreto ML, Santos R, de Oliveira NF, Oliveira S Rubbish index and diarrhoea in Salvador, Brazil. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2007, 101:722-729.
35. Costa CH, Werneck GL, Rodrigues L, et al. Household structure and urban services: neglected targets in the control of visceral leishmaniasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2005, 99:229-236.
36. Hayes JM, García-Rivera E, Flores-Reyna R, et al. Risk factors for infection during a severe dengue outbreak in El Salvador in 2000. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003, 69:629-633.
37. Ramos MM, Mohammed H, Zielinski-Gutierrez E, et al. Epidemic dengue and dengue hemorrhagic fever at the Texas-Mexico border: results of a household-based seroepidemiologic survey, December 2005. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2008, 78:364-369.
38. Boisier P, Rahalison L, Rasolomaharo M, et al. Epidemiologic features of four successive annual outbreaks of bubonic plague in Mahajanga, Madagascar. Emerg Infect Dis 2002, 8:311-316.
39. Levy MZ, Bowman NM, Kawai V, et al. Periurban Trypanosoma cruzi-infected Triatoma infestans, Arequipa, Peru. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1345-1352.
40. Albarracin-Veizaga H, de Carvalho ME, Nascimento EM, Rodrigues VL, Casanova C, Barata JM Chagas disease in an area of recent occupation in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Rev Saude Publica 1999, 33:230-236.
41. Cattaneo MD, Galiani S, Gertler PJ, Martinez S, Titiunik R Housing, health and happiness (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2007/08/28/000158349_20070828131650/Rendered/PDF/wps421401update1.pdf.
42. Berkman L, Kawachi I Social Epidemiology 2000, Oxford University Press, New York.
43. Ompad DC, Galea S, Caiaffa WT, Vlahov D Social determinants of the health of urban populations: methodologic considerations. J Urban Health 2007, 84(3 suppl):i42-i53.
44. Brockerhoff M, Brennan E The poverty of cities in developing regions. Popul Dev Rev 1998, 24:75-114.
45. de Mattos Almeida MC, Caiaffa WT, Assuncao RM, Proietti FA Spatial vulnerability to dengue in a Brazilian urban area during a 7-year surveillance. J Urban Health 2007, 84:334-345.
46. Siqueira JB, Martelli CM, Maciel IJ, et al. Household survey of dengue infection in central Brazil: spatial point pattern analysis and risk factors assessment. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004, 71:646-651.
47. Ximenes R, Southgate B, Smith PG, Neto L Guimarães Socioeconomic determinants of schistosomiasis in an urban area in the Northeast of Brazil. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2003, 14:409-421.
48. Reis RB, Ribeiro GS, Felzemburgh RD, et al. Impact of environment and social gradient on leptospira infection in urban slums. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008, 2:e228.
49. Riley LW, Ko AI, Unger A, Reis MG Slum health: diseases of neglected populations. BMC Int Health Hum Rights 2007, 7:2.
50. AIDS epidemic update UNAIDS, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://data.unaids.org/pub/EpiReport/2006/2006_EpiUpdate_en.pdf.
51. Khan MM, Kraemer A Socio-economic factors explain differences in public health-related variables among women in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health 2008, 8:254.
52. Kishk NA Knowledge, attitudes and practices of women towards antenatal care: rural-urban comparison. J Egypt Public Health Assoc 2002, 77:479-498.
53. Gupta M, Thakur JS, Kumar R Reproductive and child health inequities in Chandigarh Union Territory of India. J Urban Health 2008, 85:291-299.
54. Fotso JC, Ezeh A, Oronje R Provision and use of maternal health services among urban poor women in Kenya: what do we know and what can we do?. J Urban Health 2008, 85:428-442.
55. Fotso JC, Ezeh AC, Madise NJ, Ciera J Progress towards the child mortality millennium development goal in urban sub-Saharan Africa: the dynamics of population growth, immunization, and access to clean water. BMC Public Health 2007, 7:218.
56. Meissner PE, Mandi G, Mockenhaupt FP, et al. Marked differences in the prevalence of chloroquine resistance between urban and rural communities in Burkina Faso. Acta Trop 2008, 105:81-86.
57. Anti-tuberculosis drug resistance in the world: fourth global report WHO, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.who.int/tb/publications/2008/drs_report4_26feb08.pdf.
58. Almeida D, Rodrigues C, Udwadia ZF, et al. Incidence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in urban and rural India and implications for prevention. Clin Infect Dis 2003, 36:e152-e154.
59. Zaman K, Rahim Z, Yunus M, et al. Drug resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in selected urban and rural areas in Bangladesh. Scand J Infect Dis 2005, 37:21-26.
60. Adler NE, Boyce T, Chesney MA, et al. Socioeconomic status and health. The challenge of the gradient. Am Psychol 1994, 49:15-24.
61. Lynch JW, Kaplan GA, Salonen JT Why do poor people behave poorly? Variation in adult health behaviours and psychosocial characteristics by stages of the socioeconomic lifecourse. Soc Sci Med 1997, 44:809-819.
62. Råssjö EB, Kambugu F, Tumwesigye MN, Tenywa T, Darj E Prevalence of sexually transmitted infections among adolescents in Kampala, Uganda, and theoretical models for improving syndromic management. J Adolesc Health 2006, 38:213-221.
63. Anderson AF, Qingsi Z, Hua X, Jianfeng B China's floating population and the potential for HIV transmission: a social-behavioural perspective. AIDS Care 2003, 15:177-185.
64. He N, Detels R, Chen Z, et al. Sexual behavior among employed male rural migrants in Shanghai, China. AIDS Educ Prev 2006, 18:176-186.
65. Li L, Morrow M, Kermode M Vulnerable but feeling safe: HIV risk among male rural-to-urban migrant workers in Chengdu, China. AIDS Care 2007, 19:1288-1295.
66. Liu H, Li X, Stanton B, et al. Risk factors for sexually transmitted disease among rural-to-urban migrants in China: implications for HIV/sexually transmitted disease prevention. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2005, 19:49-57.
67. Yang X, Derlega VJ, Luo H Migration, behaviour change and HIV/STD risks in China. AIDS Care 2007, 19:282-288.
68. Auvert B, Buvé A, Ferry B, et al. Ecological and individual level analysis of risk factors for HIV infection in four urban populations in sub-Saharan Africa with different levels of HIV infection. AIDS 2001, 15(suppl 4):S15-S30.
69. Orubuloye O, Caldwell JC, Caldwell P Men's sexual behaviour in urban and rural southwest Nigeria: its cultural, social and attitudinal context. Health Transit Rev 1997, 7(suppl):315-328.
70. Voeten HA, Egesah OB, Habbema JD Sexual behavior is more risky in rural than in urban areas among young women in Nyanza province, Kenya. Sex Transm Dis 2004, 31:481-487.
71. Weiss RA, McMichael AJ Social and environmental risk factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nat Med 2004, 10(12 suppl):S70-S76.
72. Tornee S, Kaewkungwal J, Fungladda W, Silachamroon U, Akarasewi P, Sunakorn P The association between environmental factors and tuberculosis infection among household contacts. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2005, 36(suppl 4):221-224.
73. Tupasi TE, Radhakrishna S, Quelapio MI, et al. Tuberculosis in the urban poor settlements in the Philippines. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2000, 4:4-11.
74. Kyobutungi C, Ziraba AK, Ezeh A, Yé Y The burden of disease profile of residents of Nairobi's slums: results from a demographic surveillance system. Popul Health Metr 2008, 6:1.
75. Ambert C, Jassey K, Thomas L Beyond sex and medicines: why getting the basics right is part of the response! HIV, Aids and urban development issues in sub-Saharan Africa (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://web.wits.ac.za/NR/rdonlyres/EAF81477-F895-44C3-9CDA-7BC981098936/0/B68.pdf.
76. Desjeux P The increase in risk factors for leishmaniasis worldwide. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001, 95:239-243.
77. Desjeux P Leishmaniasis: current situation and new perspectives. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2004, 27:305-318.
78. Costa CH, Pereira HF, Araújo MV Visceral leishmaniasis epidemic in the State of Piauí, Brazil, 1980-1986. Rev Saude Publica 1990, 24:361-372. (in Portuguese).
79. Oliveira CD, Assunção RM, Reis IA, Proietti FA Spatial distribution of human and canine visceral leishmaniasis in Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais State, Brasil, 1994-1997. Cad Saude Publica 2001, 17:1231-1239.
80. Moroccan Ministry of Health. Programme de lutte contre les leishmanioses. Préfecture de Marrakech. 2004. Plan d'Action Préfectoral 2005. Rabat: Morocco.
81. Barrett TV, Senra MS Leishmaniasis in Manaus, Brazil. Parasitol Today 1989, 5:255-257.
82. el-Safi SH, Peters W Studies on the leishmaniases in the Sudan. 1. Epidemic of cutaneous leishmaniasis in Khartoum. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1991, 85:44-47.
83. Salomón OD, Sosa-Estani S, Ramos K, et al. Tegumentary leishmaniasis outbreak in Bella Vista City, Corrientes, Argentina during 2003. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2006, 101:767-774.
84. de Beer P, el Harith A, Deng LL, Semiao-Santos SJ, Chantal B, van Grootheest M A killing disease epidemic among displaced Sudanese population identified as visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1991, 44:283-289.
85. Costa CH Characterization and speculations on the urbanization of visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. Cad Saude Publica 2008, 24:2959-2963.
86. Silva EA, Andreotti R, Dias ES, Barros JC, Brazuna JC Detection of Leishmania DNA in phlebotomines captured in Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Exp Parasitol 2008, 119:343-348.
87. Remme JHF, Feenstra P, Lever PR, et al. Tropical diseases targeted for elimination: Chagas disease, lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, and leprosy. Disease control priorities in developing countries 2006, 433-449. The World Bank and Oxford University Press, New York, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.who.int/management/referralhospitals.pdf, D.T. Jamison, J.G. Breman, A.R. Measham (Eds.).
88. Medrano-Mercado N, Ugarte-Fernandez R, Butrón V, et al. Urban transmission of Chagas disease in Cochabamba, Bolivia. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2008, 103:423-430.
89. Schmuñis GA Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiologic agent of Chagas' disease: status in the blood supply in endemic and nonendemic countries. Transfusion 1991, 31:547-557.
90. Gajate P, Pietrokovsky S, Abramo Orrego L, et al. Triatoma infestans in Greater Buenos Aires, Argentina. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 200; 96: 473-77.
91. Vallvé SL, Rojo H, Wisnivesky-Colli C Urban ecology of Triatoma infestans in San Juan, Argentina. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1996, 91:405-408.
92. Zeledon R, Calvo N, Montenegro VM, Lorosa ES, Arevalo C A survey on Triatoma dimidiata in an urban area of the province of Heredia, Costa Rica. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2005, 100:507-512.
93. Ramsey JM, Alvear AL, Ordoñez R, et al. Risk factors associated with house infestation by the Chagas disease vector Triatoma pallidipennis in Cuernavaca metropolitan area, Mexico. Med Vet Entomol 2005, 19:219-228.
94. Erlanger TE, Keiser J, De Castro M Caldas, et al. Effect of water resource development and management on lymphatic filariasis, and estimates of populations at risk. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005, 73:523-533.
95. Maciel A, Rocha A, Marzochi KB, et al. Epidemiological study of bancroftian filariasis in Recife, northeastern Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1996, 91:449-455.
96. Medeiros Z, Alves A, Brito JA, et al. The present situation regarding lymphatic filariasis in Cabo de Santo Agostinho, Pernambuco, Northeast Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2006, 48:263-267.
97. Sharma S, Sharma M, Rathaur S Bancroftian filariasis in the Varanasi region of north India: an epidemiological study. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1999, 93:379-387.
98. Terranella A, Eigiege A, Gontor I, et al. Urban lymphatic filariasis in central Nigeria. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2006, 100:163-172.
99. Pialoux G, Gaüzère BA, Jauréguiberry S, Strobel M Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect Dis 2007, 7:319-327.
100. Robertson SE, Hull BP, Tomori O, Bele O, LeDuc JW, Esteves K Yellow fever: a decade of reemergence. JAMA 1996, 276:1157-1162.
101. Yellow fever in Africa and South America, 2006. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2008, 83:60-76. WHO.
102. Akoua-Koffi C, Ekra KD, Kone AB, et al. Detection and management of the yellow fever epidemic in the Ivory Coast, 2001. Med Trop (Mars) 2002, 62:305-309.
103. Yellow fever, Senegal (update). Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2002, 77:373-374. WHO.
104. The yellow fever situation in Africa and South America in 2004. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2005, 80:250-256. WHO.
105. Monath TP Facing up to re-emergence of urban yellow fever. Lancet 1999, 353:1541.
106. Dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2000, 75:193-196. WHO.
107. Situation update of dengue in the South East Asia Region WHO, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.searo.who.int/LinkFiles/Dengue_Dengue_update_SEA_2010.pdf.
108. Cummings DA, Irizarry RA, Huang NE, et al. Travelling waves in the occurrence of dengue haemorrhagic fever in Thailand. Nature 2004, 427:344-347.
109. Pinheiro FP, Corber SJ Global situation of dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever, and its emergence in the Americas. World Health Stat Q 1997, 50:161-169.
110. Boussaa S, Pesson B, Boumezzough A Phlebotomine sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae) of Marrakech city, Morocco. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2007, 101:715-724.
111. Trape JF, Zoulani A Malaria and urbanization in central Africa: the example of Brazzaville. Part II: results of entomological surveys and epidemiological analysis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1987, 81(suppl 2):10-18.
112. Barbazan P, Baldet T, Darriet F, Escaffre H, Djoda DH, Hougard JM Impact of treatments with Bacillus sphaericus on Anopheles populations and the transmission of malaria in Maroua, a large city in a savannah region of Cameroon. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 1998, 14:33-39.
113. Awolola TS, Oduola AO, Obansa JB, Chukwurar NJ, Unyimadu JP Anopheles gambiae s.s. breeding in polluted water bodies in urban Lagos, southwestern Nigeria. J Vector Borne Dis 2007, 44:241-244.
114. Batra CP, Adak T, Sharma VP, Mittal PK Impact of urbanization on bionomics of An. culicifacies and An. stephensi in Delhi. Indian J Malariol 2001, 38:61-75.
115. Sattler MA, Mtasiwa D, Kiama M, et al. Habitat characterization and spatial distribution of Anopheles sp. mosquito larvae in Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) during an extended dry period. Malar J 2005, 4:4.
116. Robert V, Macintyre K, Keating J, et al. Malaria transmission in urban sub-Saharan Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003, 68:169-176.
117. Hay SI, Guerra CA, Tatem AJ, Atkinson PM, Snow RW Urbanization, malaria transmission and disease burden in Africa. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005, 3:81-90.
118. Keiser J, Utzinger J, de Castro M Caldas, Smith TA, Tanner M, Singer BH Urbanization in sub-saharan Africa and implication for malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004, 71(2 suppl):118-127.
119. Clark TD, Greenhouse B, Njama-Meya D, et al. Factors determining the heterogeneity of malaria incidence in children in Kampala, Uganda. J Infect Dis 2008, 198:393-400.
120. Wang SJ, Lengeler C, Smith TA, et al. Rapid urban malaria appraisal (RUMA) I: epidemiology of urban malaria in Ouagadougou. Malar J 2005, 4:43.
121. Staedke SG, Nottingham EW, Cox J, Kamya MR, Rosenthal PJ, Dorsey G Short report: proximity to mosquito breeding sites as a risk factor for clinical malaria episodes in an urban cohort of Ugandan children. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003, 69:244-246.
122. Matthys B, Vounatsou P, Raso G, et al. Urban farming and malaria risk factors in a medium-sized town in Cote d'Ivoire. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006, 75:1223-1231.
123. Klinkenberg E, McCall PJ, Hastings IM, Wilson MD, Amerasinghe FP, Donnelly MJ Malaria and irrigated crops, Accra, Ghana. Emerg Infect Dis 2005, 11:1290-1293.
124. Craig PG, Bryan JP, Miller RE, et al. The prevalence of hepatitis A, B and C infection among different ethnic groups in Belize. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993, 49:430-434.
125. Poovorawan Y, Chatchatee P, Chongsrisawat V Epidemiology and prophylaxis of viral hepatitis: a global perspective. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2002, 17(suppl):S155-S166.
126. Villarejos VM, Provost PJ, Ittensohn OL, McLean AA, Hilleman MR Seroepidemiologic investigations of human hepatitis caused by A, B, and a possible third virus. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1976, 152:524-528.
127. Barzaga BN Hepatitis A shifting epidemiology in South-East Asia and China. Vaccine 2000, 18(suppl 1):S61-S64.
128. Tanaka J Hepatitis A shifting epidemiology in Latin America. Vaccine 2000, 18(suppl 1):S57-S60.
129. Lai JY Hepatitis A and E in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med J 1997, 3:79-82.
130. Department of Health annual report 1005/2006 Department of Health, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.dh.gov.hk/english/pub_rec/pub_rec_ar/pub_rec_arpis_0506_html_ar.html.
131. Hufnagel L, Brockmann D, Geisel T Forecast and control of epidemics in a globalized world. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004, 101:15124-15129.
132. Charrel RN, de Lamballerie X, Raoult D Chikungunya outbreaks-the globalization of vectorborne diseases. N Engl J Med 2007, 356:769-771.
133. Fasina FO, Bisschop SP, Webster RG Avian influenza H5N1 in Africa: an epidemiological twist. Lancet Infect Dis 2007, 7:696-697.
134. Behrens RH, Carroll B, Smith V, Alexander N Declining incidence of malaria imported into the UK from West Africa. Malar J 2008, 7:235.
135. Elkhalifa SM, Mustafan IO, Wais M, Malik EM Malaria control in an urban area: a success story from Khartoum, 1995-2004. East Mediterr Health J 2008, 14:206-215.
136. Ooi EE, Goh KT, Gubler DK Dengue prevention and 35 years of vector control in Singapore. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:887-893.
137. Our cities, our health, our future: acting on social determinants for health equity in urban settings WHO Kobe Centre, (accessed Nov 18, 2010). http://www.who.int/social_determinants/resources/knus_report_16jul07.pdf.
138. Yusuf S, Nabeshima K, Ha W Income and health in cities: the messages from stylized facts. J Urban Health 2007, 8(3 suppl):i35-i41.
139. Szreter S The importance of social intervention in Britain's mortality decline c1850-1914; a re-interpretation of the role of public health. Soc Hist Med 1988, 1:1-37.
140. Scott V, Stern R, Sanders D, Reagon G, Mathews V Research to action to address inequities: the experience of the Cape Town Equity Gauge. Int J Equity Health 2008, 7:6.