Master-Slave rituals of power at a gold mine in nineteenth-century Brazil

History Workshop Journal

Volumn 53, Issue 1, 2002, Pages 43-72

  Childs, Matt D ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 78751686246     PISSN: 13633554     EISSN: 14774569     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/hwj/53.1.43     Document Type: Article

References (284)

1. Richard Burton to Chairman J. D. Powles, Morro Velho, 5 July 1867, St John d'el Rey Mining Company Archive, Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection, University of Texas at Austin (hereafter SJDRMC-BLAC), Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1. Burton's letter was read to the Board of Directors on 16 Oct. 1867, Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 4, SJDRMC-BLAC.
2. Richard F. Burton, Explorations of the Highlands of Brazil, Tinsley Brothers, London, 1869, vol. 1, p. 236.
3. As previous note.
4. As note 2;
5. St John d'el Rey Mining Company, Circular to the Proprietors of the St John d'el Rey Mining Company (hereafter Circular), R. Clay, London, 1850, pp. 10, 16-17;
6. Saint John d'el Rey Mining Company, Limited, Annual Report (hereafter AR), R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor, London, 1851, p. 7;
7. AR 1875, p. 72;
8. John Hockin to James Gordon, London, 1 Aug. 1859, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1; and Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 3, 12 and 20 July 1859, SJDRMC-BLAC.
9. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 236;
10. AR 1867, p. 37;
11. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 3, 15 Feb. 1860, SJDRMC-BLAC.
12. Entry for 3 Dec. 1834, Book of Abstracts of title deeds for Morro Velho property, vol. 1, pp. 24-5, SJDRMC-BLAC; Bernard A. Hollowood, The Story of Morro Velho, St John d'el Rey Mining Company, London, 1955, p. 22;
13. Marshall C. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil: the St John d'el Rey Mining Company and the Morro Velho Gold Mine, 1830-1960, Duke University Press, Durham, 1989, p. 24;
14. Alan K. Manchester, British Preeminence in Brazil: its Rise and Decline, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill NC, 1933;
15. Richard Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization in Brazil, 1850-1914, Cambridge University Press, 1968;
16. Peter Rivière, Absent-minded Imperialism: Britain and the Expansion of Empire in Nineteenth-Century Brazil, Tauris Academic Studies, London, 1995;
17. T. A. Rickard, 'The Deepest Mine', Mining and Scientific Press 121, Oct. 1920, pp. 477-8;
18. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 49, fn. 81;
19. Douglas Cole Libby, Trabalho escravo e capital estrangeiro no Brasil: O caso de Morro Velho, Editora Itatiaia, Belo Horizonte, 1984, p. 33.
20. AR 1867, p. 37;
21. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 273;
22. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 172;
23. and Libby, Trabalho Escravo, p. 87;
24. Amilcar Martins Filho and Roberto B. Martins, 'Slavery in a Nonexport Economy: Nineteenth-Century Minas Gerais Revisited', Hispanic American Historical Review 63:3, Aug. 1983, p. 541.
25. Robert Conrad, The Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, 1850-1888, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1972, p. 14;
26. Charles Joyner, Down by the Riverside: a South Carolina Slave Community, University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1984, p. 34.
27. For studies of manumission in Brazil, see Stuart B. Schwartz, 'The Manumission of Slaves in Colonial Brazil: Bahia, 1684-1745', Hispanic American Historical Review 54:4, Nov. 1974, pp. 603-35;
28. Kátia M. de Queirós Mattoso, 'A propósito de cartas de alforria na Bahia, 1779-1850', Anais de historia 4, 1972, pp. 23-55;
29. Mary C. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro, 1808-1850, Princeton University Press, 1987, pp. 335-69;
30. Robert Wayne Slenes 'The Demography and Economics of Brazilian Slavery, 1850-1888', Ph. D. diss., Stanford University, 1975, pp. 484-574;
31. James Patrick Kierman, 'The Manumission of Slaves in Colonial Brazil: Paraty, 1789-1822', Ph. D. diss., New York University, 1976;
32. Kathleen Joan Higgins, 'The Slave Society in Eighteenth-Century Sabará: a Community Study in Colonial Brazil', Ph. D. diss., Yale University, 1987, pp. 191-257;
33. Donald Ramos, 'Community, Control and Acculturation: a Case Study in Eighteenth-Century Brazil', The Americas 42:4, 1986, pp. 419-51;
34. Peter L. Eisenberg, 'Ficando livre: as alforrias en Campinas no século xix', Estudos econômicos, 17:2, May-Aug. 1987, pp. 175-216;
35. and Mieko Nishida, 'Manumission and Ethnicity in Urban Slavery: Salvador, Brazil, 1808-1888', Hispanic American Historical Review 73:3, Aug. 1993, pp. 361-91;
36. Eric Hobsbawm, 'Peasants and Politics', Journal of Peasant Studies 1:1, 1973, p. 13.
37. Agreement between the Cata Branca Brazilian Company and the St John d'el Rey Mining Company, 27 June 1845, SJDRMC-BLAC;
38. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 3, 3 Mar. and 8 Dec. 1854, SJDRMC-BLAC;
39. ARs, 1848-82;
40. Circular, 1850, p. 33;
41. Great Britain, House of Lords, 'Report from the Select Committee of the House of Lords, Appointed to Consider the Best Means which Great Britain can Adopt for the Final Extinction of the African Slave Trade', Sessional Papers, 1849-50, Slave Trade, 24 May 1849, vol. 9, para. 2, 490, p. 170.
42. In a similar vein, historians have shown how slaves could threaten to run away during peak times of production as means of obtaining concessions from masters over family control, provision grounds, socializing, and even freedom. See Gerald W. Mullin, Flight and Rebellion: Slave Resistance in Eighteenth-Century Virginia, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1972, p. 107;
43. John Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1680, Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 275-8;
44. William W. Freehling, The Reintegration of American History: Slavery and the Civil War, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994, p. 19;
45. T. Stephen Whitman, The Price of Freedom; Slavery and Manumission in Baltimore and Early National Maryland, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, 1997, pp. 66-7, 73-4;
46. James Sidbury, Ploughshares into Swords: Race Rebellion and Identity in Gabriel's Virginia, 1730-1810, Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 197;
47. and Stuart B. Schwartz, 'Resistance and Accommodation in Eighteenth-Century Brazil: the Slaves' View of Slavery', Hispanic American Historical Review 57:1, Feb., 1977, pp. 69-81.
48. Leslie Bethell, The Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade: Britain, Brazil and the Slave Trade Question, 1807-1869, Cambridge University Press, 1970;
49. Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization, pp. 160-86;
50. 'Slaveholding Mining Companies', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:47, Nov. 1849, p. 168.
51. House of Lords, 'Report from the Select Committee...', 1849, paras 2, 372-514, pp. 164-71;
52. the articles that appeared in the Daily News, Mining Journal, and Morning Post in 1849 were reprinted in the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society's publication the Anti-Slavery Reporter.
53. See 'Slaveholding Mining Companies', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:47, Nov. 1849, pp. 165-8;
54. 'St John del Rey Mining Company', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:47, Nov. 1849, pp. 172-3;
55. 'The Slaves of the St John del Rey Mines', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:48, Dec. 1849, pp. 188-9;
56. and 'The St John del Rey Mining Company', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:48, Dec. 1849, pp. 181-3.
57. Letter reprinted in 'The Slaves of the St John del Rey Mines', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:48, Dec. 1849, p. 189.
58. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 2, p. 8 and 30 Nov. 1849, SJDRMC-BLAC.
59. Circular, 1850, pp. 17, 11.
60. Circular, 1850, p. 33.
61. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 271.
62. House of Lords, 'Report from the Select Committee...', 1849, paras 2, 353-71, pp. 162-3. Unfortunately Agostinho was not asked about and did not describe slavery at Morro Velho or how he obtained his freedom.
63. Circular, 1850, p. 19.
64. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 237
65. Francisco Peixoto de Lacerda Werneck, Memória sobre a fundação de uma fazenda na provincia do Rio de Janeiro (1847), reprint edn intro. Eduardo Silva, Fundação Casa de Rui Barbosa, Rio de Janeiro, 1985, p. 61.
66. Also see Warren Dean for the same in São Paulo province, Rio Claro: a Brazilian Plantation System, Stanford University Press, 1976, p. 65.
67. A similar process is described by Charles Joyner for the South Carolina rice fields where tasks were assigned each morning, Down by the Riverside, p. 43;
68. and Peter Kolchin for Russian serfs on Sundays, Unfree Labour: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1987, p. 69.
69. Public Records Office, Foreign Office (hereafter PRO-FO), 131/18, fols. 235-9.
70. Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 31 Oct. 1859;
71. John Hockin to Pearson Morrison, London, 22 Sept. 1877, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
72. AR 1851, p. 59.
73. AR 1875, p. 72.
74. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, pp. 197-8.
75. AR 1851, p. 66.
76. James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 1 Dec. 1865, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1. Also see John Hockin to Thomas Walker, London, 8 July 1858, John Hockin to James Gordon, London, 1 Aug. 1859, and John Hockin to Pearson Morrison, London, 22 Sept. 1877, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1, and Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 203 for the emphasis on the ceremonial aspect of the Revista.
77. John Hockin to Pearson Morrison, London, 22 Sept. 1877, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
78. James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 31 Aug. 1865, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
79. Circular, 1850, pp. 16-7.
80. John Hockin to James Gordon, London, 23 Oct. 1865; John Hockin to Pearson Morrison, London, 23 Sept. 1878, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
81. 'Lei no. 2040 de 28 de setembro 1871', Coleção das leis do imperio do Brasil, vol. 31, p. 1, 1871, art. 4, sec. 2.
82. Conrad provides an English translation of the Law of the Free Womb in Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, pp. 305-9.
83. Manuela Carneiro da Cunha, 'Silences of the Law: Customary Law and Positive Law on the Manumission of Slaves in 19th Century Brazil', History and Anthropology 1:2, 1985, p. 429;
84. Sandra Lauderdale-Graham, 'Slavery's Impasse: Slave Prostitutes, Small-Time Mistresses, and the Brazilian Law of 1871', Comparative Studies in Society and History, pp. 33:4, October 1991, pp. 692-3;
85. Martha Abreu, 'Slave Mothers and Freed Children: Emancipation and Female Space in Debates on the 'Free Womb' Law, Rio de Janeiro, 1871', Journal of Latin American Studies 28:3, October 1996, p. 568;
86. Sidney Chalhoub, 'Slaves, Freedmen and the Politics of Freedom in Brazil: The Experience of Blacks in the City of Rio', Slavery and Abolition 10:3, 1989, pp. 70-74;
87. Nishida, 'Manumission and Ethnicity in Urban Slavery', p. 379, fn. 55;
88. and Slenes, 'Demography and Economics of Brazilian Slavery', p. 508.
89. Conrad, Destruction of Brazilian Slavery, p. 205;
90. Slenes, 'Demography and Economics of Brazilian Slavery', p. 510;
91. and Eisenberg, 'Ficando livre', pp. 206-8. It should be stressed that no definite time limitations were imposed by the state on such manumission agreements between masters and slaves.
92. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 3, 12 July 1859, SJDRMC-BLAC.
93. John Hockin to James Gordon, London, 23 Oct. 1865, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
94. Eugene D. Genovese adeptly describes how certain privileges bestowed on slaves such as garden plots and holidays became transformed into rights, Roll, Jordan, Roll: the World the Slaves Made, Vintage, New York, 1974, pp. 30-1, 314-5, 535-85, esp. 539, 569, 575.
95. Emília Viotti da Costa explores the battle between master-awarded privileges and slaves' rights within the context of an extensive slave revolt, Crowns of Glory Tears of Blood: the Demerara Slave Rebellion of 1823, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994, pp. 84-5.
96. Emília Viotti da Costa, Da senzala à colônia, Difusão Européia do Livro, São Paulo, 1966, p. 307
97. and Warren Dean Rio Claro, p. 134
98. were among the first historians to emphasize the active role of slaves in the abolition process. For recent interpretations see the excellent studies by Hebe Maria Mattos de Castro, Das cores do silêncio: Os significados da liberdade no sudeste escravista, Brasil século xix, Arquivo Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, 1995;
99. and Sidney Chalhoub, Visões da liberdade: Uma história das últimas décadas da escravidão na corte, Companhia das Letras, São Paulo, 1990, that cast slaves as the central protagonists of abolition.
100. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 276.
101. Dean asserts that the arrival of an absentee master at a plantation was sometimes marked by individual gifts that included 'ribbons, buckles, and the like'. Rio Claro, p. 65.
102. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 236.
103. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 2, 13 Apr. 1852, SJDRMC-BLAC; James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 31 Aug. 1865; John Hockin to James Gordon, London, 23 Oct. 1865, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1;
104. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 236.
105. AR 1875, p. 72, emphasis in original.
106. James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 31 Aug. 1865, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
107. Memorandum by Pearson Morrison, Morro Velho, n. d. [1879-82?], SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
108. John Hockin to Pearson Morrison, London, 23 Sept. 1878, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
109. Dean, Rio Claro, pp. 72-4;
110. Ramos, 'Community, Control and Acculturation', pp. 431-2;
111. Chalhoub, Visões, p. 137;
112. Schwartz, 'Manumission of Slaves', p. 625;
113. Judy Bieber Freitas, 'Slavery and Social Life: Attempts to Reduce Free People to Slavery in the Sertão Mineiro, Brazil, 1850-1871', Journal of Latin American Studies 26:3, Oct. 1994, pp. 615-17;
114. and Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 360-1, fn. 79.
115. 'Lei no. 2040 de 28 de setembro 1871', art. 4, sec. 9; Manuela Carneiro da Cunha, 'Silences of the Law', p. 438;
116. Dean, Rio Claro, p. 72.
117. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 353, 360-1, n. 79;
118. Silvia Hunold Lara, Campos da violência: Escravos e senhores na capitania do Rio de Janeiro, 1750-1808, Paz e Terra, Rio de Janeiro, 1988, pp. 264-8;
119. Eisenberg, 'Ficando livre', p. 176;
120. Chalhoub, Visões, p. 137;
121. and Schwartz, 'Manumission of Slaves', pp. 600, 625.
122. Nishida's analysis of 3, 516 letters of liberty does not mention one revocation, 'Manumission and Ethnicity', pp. 361-91.
123. Dean does not state the total number of letters of liberty he consulted, but found three revocations, Rio Claro, pp. 72-4.
124. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, while not conducting a systematic study of manumission, mentions one re-enslavement in 1795 by the Carmelite monastery of Salvador: 'Colonial Brazil', in Neither Slave nor Free: the Freedman of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World, ed. David W. Cohen and Jack P. Greene, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1972, pp. 91-2.
125. Memorandum by Pearson Morrison, Morro Velho, n. d. [1879-82?], SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
126. Steve Hahn, 'Class and State in Postemancipation Societies: Southern Planters in Comparative Perspective', American Historical Review 95:1, Feb. 1990, pp. 75-98.
127. AR 1844, p. 34.
128. Circular, 1850, p. 11.
129. St John d'el Rey Mining Company to the Earl of Aberdeen, London, 17 June 1843, Letter Book no. 4, pp. 49-54, SJDRMC-BLAC;
130. Bethell, Abolition of the Brazilian Slave Trade, pp. 242-95, 327-63;
131. Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernization, pp. 163-4;
132. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, pp. 33-4.
133. John Hockin to Thomas Walker, London, 8 June 1857, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
134. James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 31 Oct. 1859, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
135. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 3, 15 Feb. 1860, SJDRMC-BLAC.
136. Memorandum by Pearson Morrison, Morro Velho, n. d. [1879-82?], SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
137. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (1944), reprint edn Andre Deutsch, London, 1964, remains the classic and still influential work; Mattos de Castro, Das cores do silêncio and Chalhoub, Visões da liberdade, highlight the ways freed men and women as wage labourers, often working side by side with slaves, contributed to the destruction of slavery.
138. PRO-FO, 131/18, fol. 102.
139. Quote from AR 1851, p. 64;
140. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 274.
141. 'The Slaves of the St John del Rey Mines', Anti-Slavery Reporter, n. s., 9:48, Dec. 1849, p. 188.
142. AR 1851, p. 64.
143. ARs 1851-88.
144. See Charles B. Dew's detailed discussion on the role of slaves Sam Williams and Henry Towles as leaders of the Buffalo Forge ironworks in Virginia, Bond of Iron: Master and Slave at Buffalo Forge, W. W. Norton, New York, 1994, pp. 171-91.
145. Circular, 1850, p. 37.
146. 'Lei no. 2040 de 28 de setembro 1871', art. 4; Carniero da Cunha, 'Silences of the Law', p. 430;
147. Lauderdale-Graham, 'Slavery's Impasse', p. 692;
148. Chalhoub, 'Slaves, Freedmen and the Politics of Freedom', pp. 70-4;
149. Abreu, 'Slave Mothers and Freed Children', p. 568;
150. and Slenes, 'Demography and Economics of Brazilian Slavery', p. 508.
151. James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 31 Oct. 1859, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
152. PRO-FO, 131/18, fol. 410.
153. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 276.
154. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 236.
155. AR 1851, p. 59.
156. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 236.
157. AR 1851, p. 59.
158. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 236.
159. Circular, 1850, p. 17.
160. AR 1851, 69;
161. Circular, 1850, pp. 16-17.
162. Circular, 1850, p. 48;
163. AR 1851, p. 61;
164. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 237.
165. Circular, 1850, p. 32;
166. AR 1851, p. 61;
167. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 196.
168. Karl Marx - surprising to some - understood the revolutionary implications of shame: 'You look at me with a smile and ask: What is gained by that? No revolution is made out of shame. I reply: Shame is already a revolution of a kind... Shame is a kind of anger that is turned inward. And if a whole nation really experienced a sense of shame, it would be like a lion crouching ready to spring': 'Letters from the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher ', in Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels - Collected Works, Lawrence and Wishart, London, 1976, vol. 3, p. 133;
169. Charles Dew describes a similar symbolic importance of slaves buying material goods for themselves with their overtime wages, Bond of Iron, esp. p. 116.
170. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 237.
171. Circular, 1850, p. 31.
172. Circular, 1850, pp. 36, 45.
173. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 237.
174. Circular, 1850, p. 46.
175. Circular, 1850, p. 36.
176. Sidney Mintz was the first to study slave provision grounds in detail and remains the authority on the subject, see in particular Caribbean Transformations, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1975, pp. 180-213.
177. Several recent studies and a useful literature survey can be found in a special issue of Slavery and Abolition entitled 'The Slaves' Economy: Independent Production by Slaves in the Americas', 12:1, May 1991.
178. The most thorough study for Brazil is B. J. Barickman, A Bit of Land Which They Call Roça: Slave Provision Grounds in the Bahian Recôncavo, 1780-1860', Hispanic American Historical Review 74:4, Nov. 1994, pp. 649-87.
179. AR 1851, p. 61.
180. Barickman suggests that '[although in some English-speaking parts of the Caribbean contemporaries distinguished between gardens, yards, and provision grounds, no comparable distinction appears in Brazilian sources.' as a result, he uses the term roça as an equivalent for all three. The St John distinction of gardens and roças probably reflects their British nationality. 'A Bit of Land', p. 650, fn. 3.
181. Circular, 1850, p. 32;
182. AR 1845, p. 33.
183. Circular, 1850, p. 46.
184. Circular, 1850, p. 32.
185. AR 1851, p. 61.
186. Rebecca Scott argues that in Cuba 'the key to self-purchase was often the pig': because slaves 'were allowed to raise pigs on the plantation, and could feed those pigs with their own crops, with part of their ration of corn, or on plantation refuse and forage, the animal was in effect a form of savings and investment': Slave Emancipation in Cuba: the Transition to Free Labour, 1860-1899, Princeton University Press, 1985, p. 150.
187. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 227.
188. On the Protestant work-ethic and slavery see Michael Greenberg, 'Slavery and the Protestant Ethic', Southern Studies 15:3, 1976, pp. 209-39;
189. AR 1852, pp. 10-11;
190. Morro Velho Church, Register Book, SJDRMC-BLAC.
191. AR 1844, p. 34.
192. Great Britain, House of Commons, A Bill Intituled, an Act to Legalize Certain Marriages Solemnized at Morro Velho in Brazil', Sessional Papers 4, 1867, pp. 439-40;
193. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 243.
194. Morro Velho Church, Register Book, Register of Baptisms, Thomas Buzza, 24 March 1851, entry no. 172, SJDRMC-BLAC.
195. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 201.
196. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 174;
197. Linda M. Heywood, 'The Angolan-Afro-Brazilian Cultural Connections', Slavery and Abolition 20:1, April, 1999, p. 14;
198. John K. Thornton, 'On the Trail of Voodoo: African Christianity in Africa and the Americas', The Americas 44:2, Oct. 1988, pp. 262-71;
199. John K. Thornton, 'African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion', American Historical Review 96:4, Oct. 1991, pp. 1, 105-8.
200. Heywood, 'Angolan-Afro-Brazilian Cultural Connections', p. 19;
201. Elizabeth W. Kiddy, 'Ethnic and Racial Identity in the Brotherhoods of the Rosary of Minas Gerais, 1700-1830', The Americas 56:2, Oct. 1999, pp. 238-43;
202. João José Reis, Slave Rebellion in Brazil: the Muslim Uprising of 1835 in Bahia, transl. Arthur Brakel, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1986, pp. 149-51, 153;
203. João José Reis, 'Différences et résistances: les noirs à Bahia sous l'esclavage', Cahiers d' études africaines 32:1, 1992, pp. 19, 21;
204. Patricia A. Mulvey, 'Slave Confraternities in Brazil: their Role in Colonial Society', The Americas 39:1, July 1982, pp. 46, 49;
205. A. J. R. Russell-Wood, 'Black and Mulatto Brotherhoods in Colonial Brazil', Hispanic American Historical Review 54:4, Nov. 1974, pp. 582-3;
206. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 84-5, 358-9.
207. See the numerous documents reprinted by Robert C. Smith on an Angolan brotherhood, 'Manuscritos da igreja de Nossa Senhora do Rosario dos homens pretos do Recife', Arquivos (Recife) 4-10:7-20, Dec. 1951, pp. 53-120;
208. Robert C. Smith, 'Décadas do Rosario do pretos: Documentos da irmandade', Arquivos (Recife) 4-10:7-20, Dec. 1951, pp. 143-70.
209. The Catholic lay brotherhoods of Brazil did not draw members exclusively from Kongoleses and Angolans, of course, but a wide variety of African ethnicities. In addition, it would be incorrect to label all slaves funnelled into the Atlantic slave trade from these regions as Catholic, on the basis of data that in most cases reported only ports of embarkation and often reflected imprecise European characterizations of African religion and culture. Philip D. Morgan bases an elaborate critique of studies that trace African ethnicity in the New World almost exclusively on these two points. Morgan neglects that Africanists have always faced these problems, and despite the limitations of sources, as with all sources, they have been able to overcome them through rigorous and ingenious methodologies. 'The Cultural Implications of the Atlantic Slave Trade: African Regional Origins, American Destinations and New World Developments', Slavery and Abolition 18:1, April 1997, pp. 122-145.
210. Heywood, Angolan-Afro-Brazilian Cultural Connections', pp. 10, 19-21;
211. Kiddy, 'Ethnic and Racial Identity in the Brotherhoods of the Rosary of Minas Gerais', pp. 249-51;
212. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, pp. 235-71;
213. William B. Taylor addresses the historical problems of syncretism as an analytical category for understanding the interweaving of conflicting and complementary religious systems, Magistrates of the Sacred: Priests and Parishioners in Eighteenth-Century Mexico, Stanford University Press, 1996, pp. 51-62.
214. AR 1851, p. 68.
215. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, pp. 267.
216. Linda Heywood's observation that the 'main reason why African folk Christianity thrived in Portugal stemmed from the church's practice of honouring saints, including non-white ones', would apply equally to Brazil: 'Angolan-Afro-Brazilian Cultural Connections', p. 10.
217. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, pp. 227-9.
218. For Brazil see Mulvey, 'Slave Confraternities in Brazil', pp. 39-68;
219. Russell-Wood, 'Black and Mulatto Brotherhoods in Colonial Brazil', pp. 567-602;
220. Reis, 'Différences et résistances', pp. 15-34;
221. Nishida, 'Manumission and Ethnicity', pp. 369-74, 385;
222. and Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 82-88, 298, 358-9.
223. For Cuba see Fernando Ortiz, 'Los Cabildos Afro-Cubanos', Revista Bimestre Cubana 16, Enero-Febrero, 1921, pp. 5-39;
224. Pedro Deschamps Chapeaux, El negro en la economía habanera del siglo XIX, Instituto Cubano del Libro, Havana, 1971, pp. 31-46;
225. Aline Helg, Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1995, pp. 29-36;
226. Robert Paquette, Sugar is Made with Blood: the Conspiracy of la Escalera and the Conflict between Empires over Slavery in Cuba, Wesleyan University Press, Middletown CT, 1988, pp. 108-9, 125-7;
227. and Philip Anthony Howard, 'Culture, Nationalism, and Liberation: the Afro-Cuban Mutual Aid Societies in the Nineteenth Century', Ph. D. diss., Indiana University, 1988, pp. 49-102.
228. For Argentina see George Reid Andrews, The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800-1900, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1980, pp. 142-67.
229. And for Peru see Frederick P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650, Stanford University Press, 1974, pp. 248-51;
230. and Christine Hünefeldt, Paying the Price of Freedom: Family and Labour among Lima's Slaves, 1800-1854, transl. Alexandra Stern, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994, pp. 100-5.
231. House of Lords, 'Report from the Select Committee...', 1849, para. 2, 493, p. 171.
232. Circular, 1850, p. 39.
233. Circular, 1850, p. 22;
234. AR 1851, p. 67.
235. Circular, 1850, p. 33;
236. AR 1851, p. 67.
237. See Karasch's discussion of slave dances in the city of Rio de Janeiro during the first half of the nineteenth century, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 241-9.
238. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 237-8.
239. Roger Bastide, as congadas do sul do Brasil', Provincia de São Pedro 10, 1947, pp. 167-9;
240. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 247-9;
241. Alfredo João Rabaçal, As congadas no Brasil, Secretaria de Cultura, Ciência e Tecnologia, Conselho Estadual de Cultura, São Paulo, 1976;
242. and Mulvey, 'Slave Confraternities in Brazil', p. 46;
243. Heywood, 'Angolan-Afro-Brazilian Cultural Connections', pp. 20-1;
244. Kiddy, 'Ethnic and Racial Identity in the Brotherhoods of the Rosary of Minas Gerais', pp. 249-51.
245. Heywood, 'Angolan-Afro-Brazilian Cultural Connections', pp. 12-21.
246. Frederika Bremer, The Homes of the New World; Impressions of America, transl. Mary Howitt (1853), Johnson Reprint Company, New York, 1968, vol. 2, pp. 348-9;
247. also see Robert Francis Jameson, Letters from Havana during the Year 1820, John Miller, London, 1820, pp. 21-2;
248. and the numerous traveller accounts quoted in Robert Dirks, The Black Saturnalia: Conflict and its Ritual Expression on British West Indian Slave Plantations, University of Florida Press, Gainesville, 1987, pp. 1-8, 167-84.
249. Karasch, Slave Life in Rio, pp. 14-21;
250. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 174.
251. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, pp. 237-8.
252. James Gordon to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 1 Dec. 1865, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
253. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, p. 238.
254. Some of the works that have influenced my thoughts on ritualized displays of power are: M. M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, transl. Helene Iwolsky, MIT Press, Cambridge MA, 1968;
255. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures, Pantheon, New York, 1973;
256. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll;
257. Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France, Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, 1975, pp. 124-51;
258. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison, transl. Alan Sheridan, Pantheon, New York, 1977;
259. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, transl. R. Nice, Cambridge University Press, 1977;
260. Victor W. Turner, The Anthropology of Performance, PAJ Publications, New York, 1986;
261. James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1990;
262. and Sherry B. Ortner, 'Resistance and the Problem of Ethnographic Refusal', Comparative Studies in Society and History 37:1, 1995, pp. 173-93.
263. AR 1851, p. 67.
264. Burton, Explorations, vol. 1, pp. 274-5.
265. Agreement between the Cata Branca Brazilian Company and the St John d'el Rey Mining Company, 27 June 1845, SJDRMC-BLAC.
266. John Hockin to James Gordon, London, 1 Aug. 1859; James Gordon to John Hocking, Morro Velho, 2 July 1869, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1; Joaquim Nabuco denounced the St John and quoted from the contract in a speech before the Brazilian parliament on 26 Aug. 1879, Brazil, Congresso, Câmara dos Deputados, Anais, 17th Legislature, Typographia Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, 1879, vol. 4, pp. 182-5; Nabuco then gave a copy of the contract to the Rio News which reprinted the document, 'Illegal Slavery', 5 Sept. 1879, p. 1, cols. 2-5.
267. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 3, 18 May 1859, SJDRMC-BLAC.
268. St John d'el Rey Mining Company, Limited, Memorandum by the Company, London, n. p., Nov. 1881, [p. 4], SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
269. Paul Bérenger, 'Le Brésil en 1879', Revue des deux mondes 37:1, Jan.-Feb. 1880, p. 441.
270. The Rio News first announced the decision on 5 Nov. 1879, p. 2 col. 1; and then reprinted the decision under the title 'The Judgment in Favour of the Catta Branca Blacks', 5 Dec. 1879, p. 1, cols. 3-5 [quote, col. 3]; PRO-FO, 131/18, fol. 156.
271. Fonseca to José Antonio Alonzo de Brito, Ouro Preto, 12 Dec. 1879, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
272. Memorandum by the Company, [p. 4].
273. Pearson Morrison to John Hockin, Morro Velho, 4 Jan. 1880, and 2 Jan. 1881, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
274. The South American Journal and Brazil and River Plate Mail, London, 3 Aug. 1882, p. 2;
275. Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 4, 18 Oct. 1882, SJDRMC-BLAC;
276. Eakin, British Enterprise in Brazil, p. 36.
277. Memorandum by Pearson Morrison, Morro Velho, n. d.. [1879-82?], SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1.
278. ARs 1882-86;
279. Fonseca to José Antonio Alonzo de Brito, Ouro Preto, 12 Dec. 1879;
280. John Hockin to Pearson Morrison, London, 23 Jan. 1880, SJDRMC-BLAC, Series 5, Morro Velho Mine, Box 1;
281. and The South American Journal and Brazil and River Plate Mail, London, 3 Aug. 1882, p. 2.
282. Frederick Tendron to Pearson Morrison, Rio de Janeiro, 2 June 1880, SJDRMC-BLAC, Report on Tendron's visit to Morro Velho, MS 8; Minutes of Board Meetings, vol. 4, 6 Oct. 1880, 16 Mar. 1881, 6 Apr. 1881, 4 May 1881, SJDRMC-BLAC; PRO-FO, 13/548, fol. 171.
283. AR 1887;
284. Eakin provides a detailed account of the mine collapse and the rebuilding process, British Enterprise in Brazil, pp. 41-6.