The Interstates and the Cities: The U.S. Department of Transportation and the Freeway Revolt, 1966–1973

Journal of Policy History

Volumn 20, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 193-226

  Mohl, Raymond A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 78751547679     PISSN: 08980306     EISSN: 15284190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jph.0.0014     Document Type: Article

References (231)

1. Carl Solberg, Riding High: America in the Cold War (New York, 1973), 257.
2. Peter O. Muller, “Transportation and Urban Form: Stages in the Spatial Evolution of the American Metropolis,” in The Geography of Urban Transportation, ed. Susan Hanson, 2d ed. (New York, 1995), 43
3. Mark I. Gelfand, A Nation of Cities: The Federal Government and Urban America, 1933-1965 (New York, 1975), 222–30
4. Mark H. Rose, Interstate: Express Highway Politics, 1941-1956 (Lawrence, Kans. 1979)
5. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, The States and the Interstates (Washington, D.C. 1991)
6. Tom Lewis, Divided Highways: Building the Interstate Highways, Transforming American Life (New York, 1997)
7. Jane Holtz Kay, Asphalt Nation: How the Automobile Took Over America and How We Can Take It Back (New York, 1997).
8. Raymond A. Mohl, “Planned Destruction: The Interstates and Central City Housing,” in From Tenements to the Taylor Homes: In Search of an Urban Housing Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. John F. Bauman, Roger Biles, and Kristin Szylvian (University Park, Pa. 2000), 226–45
9. Raymond A. Mohl, “Stop the Road: Freeway Revolts in American Cities,” Journal of Urban History 30 (July 2004): 674–706
10. Alan Altshuler and David Luberoff, Mega-Projects: The Changing Politics of Urban Public Investment (Washington, D.C. 2003), 83.
11. Richard O. Baumbach Jr. and William E. Borah, The Second Battle of New Orleans: A History of the Vieux Carre Riverfront-Expressway Controversy (Tuscaloosa, Ala. 1981)
12. Douglas H. Haeuber, The Baltimore Expressway Controversy: A Study in the Political Decision-Making Process (Baltimore, 1974)
13. John E. Seley, “The Kink in Nashville's Interstate-40,” in The Politics of Public-Facility Planning, ed. John E. Seley (Lexington, Mass. 1983), 57–66
14. George W. Curry and the Property Owners Committee, A Petition Appeal [Montgomery, Ala.], 28 April 1960, Bureau of Public Roads Records (hereafter cited as BBP Records), RG 30, General Correspondence, 1912-65, box 1665, U.S. National Archives II, College Park, Maryland
15. Vera Hirschberg, “Forces Gather for Stormy Debate over Highways with Trust Fund as Lightning Rod,” National Journal 2 (6 June 1970): 1206
16. Bob Levey and Jane Freundel Levey, “Lost Highways: The Plan to Pave Washington, and the People Who Stopped It,” Washington Post Magazine, 26 November 2000, 10–26
17. Margaret Cary Tunks, Seattle Citizens Against Freeways: Fighting Fiercely and Winning Sometimes (Kearney, Nebr. 1999)
18. Richard Henry Ginn, “Interstate-40 Through Overton Park: A Case Study of Location Decision-Making” (M.S. thesis, University of Tennessee, 1970).
19. Daniel P. Moynihan, “Policy vs. Program in the ‘70s,” The Public Interest 20 (Summer 1970): 94.
20. Norman Beckman, “Impact of the Transportation Planning Process,” Traffic Quarterly 20 (April 1966): 159–73
21. Thomas A. Morehouse, “The 1962 Highway Act: A Study in Artful Interpretation,” Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35 (May 1969): 160–68
22. Walter K. Johnson, “The 1962 Highway Act: Its Long-Term Significance,” Urban Law Annual 3 (1970): 57–64.
23. Wolf Von Eckardt, “Battle of New Orleans: Turning Point in the Freeway War,” Washington Post, 26 June 1966
24. Joseph S. Clark, “Cities Revolt Against the Expressway,” Congressional Record-Senate, 89th Cong. 2d sess. 6 April 1966, 7873–74
25. Baumbach and Borah, Second Battle of New Orleans, 102–8.
26. Monte Latimer Monroe, “Lone Star Environmentalist: U.S. Senator Ralph W. Yarborough” (Ph.D. diss. Texas Tech University, 1999), 78–84
27. Ralph Yarborough, “Congress Must Act to Preserve America's Parks from Destruction by Highways,” Congressional Record-Senate, 89th Cong. 2d sess. 23 June 1966, 14073–14074
28. Ralph W. Yarborough, “Congress Takes Historic Action Creating National Policy of Preserving Parks and Historic Sites from Destruction by Highways,” Congressional Record-Senate, 89th Cong. 2d sess. 29 July 1966, 16843–16856
29. Rex M. Whitton, “Speech at the Twentieth Annual Meeting and Preservation Conference of the National Trust,” Philadelphia, 7 October 1966, in Mark P. Lowrey Papers, box 47-5, File 4, Louisiana and Special Collections Department, Earl K. Long Library, University of New Orleans, New Orleans.
30. James MacGregor Burns, To Heal and to Bind: The Programs of President Lyndon B. Johnson (New York, 1968), 326–45, for Johnson's 1966 Transportation Message to Congress
31. Joseph A. Califano, A Presidential Nation (New York, 1975), 27–29, 50-51
32. Joseph A. Califano, The Triumph and Tragedy of Lyndon Johnson (New York, 1991), 122–26
33. Robert Dallek, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961-1973 (New York, 1998), 313–17
34. Mark H. Rose, Bruce E. Seely, and Paul F. Barrett, The Best Transportation System in the World: Railroads, Trucks, Airlines, and American Public Policy in the Twentieth Century (Columbus, 2006), 134–50
35. David G. McComb, interview with Lowell K. Bridwell, 17 October 1968, pp. 14–21, Lyndon B. Johnson Library Austin, Texas
36. Grant M. Davis, The Department of Transportation (Lexington, Mass. 1970)
37. Alan S. Boyd, “The U.S. Department of Transportation,” Journal of Air Law and Commerce 33 (Spring 1967): 225–33
38. Alan S. Boyd, “The Federal Department of Transportation,” Traffic Quarterly 21 (October 1967): 467–69.
39. Lyndon B. Johnson Library “Planes, Trains, Ships, Roads: An Official Look Ahead” [Interview with Alan S. Boyd], U.S. News and World Report, 24 January 1966, 48–51
40. John Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness: Or Why You Can't Get There from Here (Boston, 1971), 44–57.
41. Alan S. Boyd, “Speech before Transportation Task Force of the State of California,” Los Angeles, 6 September 1967, Federal Highway Administration Records (hereafter cited as fhwa Records), RG 406, General Subject File, box 14, U.S. National Archives II, College Park, Maryland
42. Alan S. Boyd, “Speech before South Carolina Governor's Transportation Conference,” Columbia, 29 November 1967, fhwa Records, RG 406, General Subject File, box 14
43. Alan S. Boyd, “Speech before Third Annual Rocky Mountain States Governor's Conference,” Albuquerque, 7 September 1967, fhwa Records, RG 406, General Subject File, box 14
44. Lyn Shepard, “U.S. Traffic Chief Defends Roles of Railroads and Highways,” Christian Science Monitor, 6 June 1968, 15
45. Francis C. Turner, “The Highway Program Faces New Challenges: Speech at Illinois Editors' Highway Safety Seminar,” Rocton, Illinois, 3 May 1968, fhwa Records, RG 406, Lowell K. Bridwell Files, box 16
46. Robert Janus, “Transportation: No Policy, No System,” Washington Monthly 1 (April 1969): 49
47. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 46. On the discomfort and diffi culty of state and federal highway engineers in adapting to a changing social environment unfriendly to building highways
48. see Mark H. Rose and Bruce E. Seely, “Getting the Interstate Built: Road Engineers and the Implementation of Public Policy, 1955-1985,” Journal of Policy History 2, no. 1 (1990): 23–55.
49. “Lowell Bridwell: Urban Highways Are the Big Challenge,” Engineering News-Record (21 March 1968): 129
50. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 54–55.
51. On corruption in the highway construction program, see Stanley Meisler, “The Federal Highway Program: Super-Graft on Superhighways,” The Nation 192 (1 April 1961): 275–79.
52. “Lowell Bridwell,” Engineering News-Record, 129
53. Donald L. O'Connor, “Road Planners Must Weigh Social Aspects, Bridwell Says,” Transport Topics (18 September 1967): 6
54. Priscilla Dunhill, “The Freeway versus the City,” Architectural Forum 128 (January- February 1968): 72–77
55. Priscilla Dunhill, “Reconciling the conflict of Highways and Cities,” The Reporter 38 (8 February 1968): 21–23
56. Ronald G. Shafer, “Freeways and Cities,” Wall Street Journal, 27 June 1968
57. McComb interview with Bridwell, 28–31
58. “Proceedings of Meeting on Baltimore Expressway System,” 12 December 1968, fhwa Records, RG 406, Francis C. Turner Files, box 15; Alan Lupo, Frank Colcord, and Edmund P. Fowler, Rites of Way: The Politics of Transportation in Boston and the U.S. City (Boston, 1971), 19-20, 38-39, 109, 185; Lewis, Divided Highways, 202-6
59. Norman Klein, “Baltimore Urban Design Concept Team,” Highway Research Record 220 (1968): 11–20.
60. Schrag interview with Boyd, 2 October 2001, p. 2
61. Greenwood interview with Mertz, 5 March 1988, p. 37
62. Dunhill, “The Freeway versus the City,” 73
63. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 44–57.
64. “Wall-to-Wall Concrete,” New York Times, 17 November 1967
65. Homer Bigart, “U.S. Road Plans Periled by Rising Urban Hostility,” New York Times, 13 November 1967
66. “Urban Expressway Projects May be Delayed by Opposition,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, 26 November 1967
67. “Trouble Ahead for Freeways in Cities,” U.S. News and World Report, 4 April 1966, 8
68. Charles E. Alverson, “Beauty and the ‘Beasts’: Foes of Urban Freeway Expansion Score More Successes,” Wall Street Journal, 11 May 1966
69. William G. Wing, “The Concrete Juggernaut,” Audubon 67 (July-August 1966): 266–72
70. “The War over Urban Expressways,” Business Week, 11 March 1967, 4–5
71. Priscilla Dunhill, “When Highways and Cities Collide,” City 1 (July 1967): 48–54
72. B. Drummond Ayers Jr. “White Roads Through Black Bedrooms,” New York Times, 31 December 1967
73. Urban Highways: Hearings before the Subcommittee on Roads of the Committee on Public Works, U.S. Senate, 90th Cong. 1st sess. Part One, November 1967; 2d sess. Part Two, May 1968 (Washington, D.C. 1968).
74. “A Rising Furor over Superhighways,” U.S. News and World Report, 27 November 1967, 14
75. “Revolt Against Tearing Up Cities,” U.S. News and World Report, 11 March 1968, 68–70
76. “Fighting the Freeway,” Newsweek, 25 March 1968, 64–65
77. Lyn Shepard, “Freeway Revolt,” Christian Science Monitor, ten-part series, 4, 6, 11, 13, 18, 20, 25, 27 June, and 2, 9 July 1968
78. Ronald G. Shafer, “Freeways and Cities,” Wall Street Journal, 27 June 1968
79. Lisa Hirsch and Louise Campbell, “Roads,” City 2 (September-October 1968): 27–34
80. Richard Whalen, “The American Highway: Do We Know Where We're Going?” Saturday Evening Post, 14 December 1968, 22–27, 54-64.
81. Washington Post, 8 November 1967
82. “A Brake to the Bulldozer,” New York Times, 21 February 1968
83. Schrag interview with Boyd, 2 October 2001, 7, 13–14, 20-22
84. Dunhill, “The Freeway versus the City,” 73
85. Ben Kelley, The Pavers and the Paved (New York, 1971), 116–17
86. Helen Leavitt, Superhighway--Superhoax (New York, 1970), 91–109
87. Zachary M. Schrag, “The Freeway Fight in Washington, D.C.: The Th ree Sisters Bridge in Th ree Administrations,” Journal of Urban History 30 (July 2004): 648–73.
88. See also Zachary M. Schrag, The Great Society's Subway: A History of the Washington Metro (Baltimore, 2006), which links freeway fi ghts and mass transit.
89. “Right-of-Way for People,” New York Times, 21 November 1968
90. “Cry, Havoc” Providence Journal, 25 October 1968
91. “Stop Signs for the Highway Lobby?” New York Post, 1 November 1968.
92. John Robson, “Speech before the Committee on Legal Affairs at the Fift y-third Annual Meeting of the American Association of State Highway Officials,” Salt Lake City, 17 October 1967, Department of Transportation Records (hereafter cited as dot Records), RG 398, General Correspondence, 1967-72, box 15, U.S. National Archives II.
93. Lowell K. Bridwell, “Speech before Highway Research Board Conference on Joint Development and Multiple Use of Transportation Rights of Way,” Washington, D.C. 15 November 1968, fhwa Records, RG 406, Turner Files, box 18
94. “Boyd Assures Strong Part for States on Transport Policy,” Transport Topics (18 September 1967): 17
95. “Congress Passes Highway Act, Interstate System Enlarged,” Transport Topics (5 August 1968): 1, 8
96. John D. Miles, “Record Outlay for Highways Wins Approval,” Transport Topics (2 September 1968): 1, 4.
97. Greenwood interview with Mertz, 12 March 1988, p. 79
98. Melvin B. Mogulof, Governing Metropolitan Areas: A Critical Review of Councils of Government and the Federal Role (Washington, D.C. 1971) and
99. Mark H. Rose, “Reframing American Highway Politics, 1956-1995,” Journal of Planning History 3 (August 2003): 212–36, which points to the importance of the cogs and later metropolitan planning organizations (mpos) in implementing the Intermodal Surface Transportation Act of 1991 (istea).
100. On governors and state dots, see “Washington News Letter,” Roads and Streets 111 (January 1968): 15
101. “Washington News Letter,” Roads and Streets 112 (March 1969): 16
102. “Washington News Letter,” Roads and Streets 112 (November 1969): 17–18
103. James W. Bennett Jr. and William J. DeWitt, “The Development of State Departments of Transportation--A Recent Organizational Phenomenon,” Transportation Journal 12 (Fall 1972): 5–14
104. Harry R. Hughes, “Emerging State Departments of Transportation,” Transportation Research Record 524 (1974): 1–3.
105. Kenneth R. Geiser, Urban Transportation Decision Making: Political Processes of Urban Freeway Controversies (Cambridge, Mass. 1970), 239
106. George Denison and Kenneth Y. Tomlinson, “Let's Put the Brakes on the Highway Lobby,” Reader's Digest 94 (May 1969): 102
107. Lupo et al. Rites of Way, 185–86
108. David Hapgood, “The Highwaymen,” Washington Monthly (March 1969): 78
109. Janus, “Transportation,” 49
110. “Galbraith Sees U.S. ‘Paved with Concrete,’” Tarrytown [N.Y.] Daily News, 12 December 1968
111. “Roadmaster Volpe,” New Republic 160 (May 10, 1969): 7
112. Lyn Shepard, “Volpe and Turner Predicted for Nixon Transportation Team,” Christian Science Monitor, 23 November 1968.
113. Daniel P. Moynihan, “Toward a National Urban Policy,” The Public Interest (Fall 1969): 3–20
114. Daniel P. Moynihan, “New Roads and Urban Chaos,” The Reporter 22 (14 April 1960): 13–20, at p. 19
115. David and Nadine Nowlan, The Bad Trip: The Story of the Spadina Expressway (Toronto, 1970), 93, quoting Moynihan
116. John Osborne, “Moynihan at Work in the White House,” New Republic 160 (22 March 1969): 11–13
117. “Report of the President- Elect's Task Force on Transportation,” 5 January 1969, Daniel P. Moynihan Papers, box 305, folder 8, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
118. Richard Reeves, President Nixon: Alone in the White House (New York, 2001), 44–46, at p. 46.
119. On Moynihan's brief stint in the Nixon White House, see Douglas Schoen, Pat: A Biography of Daniel Patrick Moynihan (New York, 1979), 144–86
120. Stephen Hess, “The Federal Executive,” in Daniel Patrick Moynihan: The Intellectual in Public Life, ed. Robert A. Katzmann (Washington, D.C. 1998), 113–23
121. Tevi Troy, Intellectuals and the American Presidency: Philosophers, Jesters, or Technicians? (Lanham, Md. 2002). 75–112
122. Godfrey Hodgson, The Gentleman from New York: Daniel Patrick Moynihan: A Biography (Boston, 2000), 149–81.
123. “Secretary Volpe Tells Where He Stands,” Highway User (February 1969): 19
124. Edwin A. Bock, “Preparing and Clearing the Urban Mass Transit Act of 1970,” typescript, 1972, 16, 17, dot Records, RG 398, General Correspondence, 1967-72, box 319 [Bock's report was subsequently published
125. Edwin A. Bock, Between Mayors and Nixon: Secretary Volpe's Mass Transit Bill (Syracuse, 1980)]
126. “Autos Can't Rule in Cities, Volpe Warns Motoring Public,” Transport Topics (17 March 1969): 1–2
127. “How to Cure Traffic Jams: Interview with John A. Volpe,” U.S. News and World Report, 9 June 1969, 62–67
128. “Volpe Says U.S. Can't Continue to Rely on Auto,” Transport Topics (26 January 1970): 1, 21
129. Janus, “Transportation,” 38–40
130. Alan L. Dean and James M. Beggs, “The Department of Transportation Comes of Age: The Nixon Years,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 (Winter 1996): 209–15
131. John A. Volpe, “The Future of Transportation,” State Government 43 (Autumn 1970): 207–10
132. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 57–59.
133. Janus, “Transportation,” 49
134. Shepard, “Volpe and Turner”
135. Bruce E. Seely, “Francis C. Turner: Father of the U.S. Interstate Highway System,” TR News 213 (March-April 2001): 5–14
136. D. C. Oliver, “In the Footsteps of a Giant: Francis C. Turner and Management of the Interstate,” Transportation Quarterly 48 (Spring 1994): 199-220
137. Daniel P. Moynihan, Memorandum of Conversation [with Alan Boyd], 6 January 1969, Moynihan Papers, box 305, folder 13
138. Francis C. Turner, “Highway Relocation Assistance: Speech to Mississippi Valley Conference of State Highway Departments,” Chicago, 20 March 1969, fhwa Records, RG 406, Central Correspondence, 1968-69, box 129
139. Janus, “Transportation,” 49
140. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 306
141. Judith Robinson, “Opposition to Urban Highway Projects Prompts Broadened Relocation Policy,” National Journal 2 (28 February 1970): 438–40.
142. For Turner's sustained defense of highway building and attack on mass transit, see “Turner Sharply Rebuts ‘Myths’ Spread by Anti-Highway Groups,” Transport Topics (10 November 1969): 1, 21
143. “Metros Not Answer to Urban Traffic, Turner Emphasizes,” Transport Topics (31 August 1970): 1, 19
144. Francis C. Turner, “Highways ‘Simply Irreplaceable,’” Transport Topics (16 August 1971): 1, 40.
145. Janus, “Transportation,” 49
146. James D. Braman, “Rapid Transit and Urban Survival,” speech typescript, 29 November 1967, dot Records, RG 398, General Correspondence, 1967-72, box 4
147. Bock, Between Mayors and Nixon, 6, 14
148. Kathleen Kilgore, John Volpe: The Life of an Immigrant's Son (Dublin, N.H. 1987), 177
149. William W. Prochnau, “Mayor Braman Appointed to U.S. Transportation Post,” Seattle Times, 7 February 1969
150. Michael J. Parks, “Braman Outlines Scope of New Federal Duties,” Seattle Times, 7 February 1969
151. Wolf Von Eckardt, “Victory in New Orleans,” Washington Post, 19 July 1969
152. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 97, 112, 128
153. William Lilley, “Urban Interests Win Transit Bill with ‘Letter-Perfect’ Lobbying,” National Journal 2 (19 September 1970): 2027–28.
154. Chris Welles, “Bitterest Fight: New Mass Transit vs. More Highways,” Life 62 (12 May 1967): 39
155. Ronald A. Buel, “In Transit with the Road Lobbyists,” Wall Street Journal, 27 June 1968
156. Donald Janson, “Expressway Construction Lags as Officials Heed Urban Outcry,” New York Times, 15 February 1970
157. Ronald G. Shafer, “Unclogging the Jam: Administration Stresses Mass Transit as Cure for Urban Traffic Ills,” Wall Street Journal, 21 May 1969
158. Bock, Between Mayors and Nixon. For the wave of books critical of the urban interstates
159. see A. Q. Mowbray, Road to Ruin: A Critical View of the Federal Highway Program (Philadelphia, 1969)
160. Helen Leavitt, Superhighway-Superhoax (Garden City, N.Y. 1970)
161. George Laycock, The Diligent Destroyers (New York, 1970)
162. John Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness: Or Why You Can't Get There from Here (Boston, 1971)
163. Ben Kelley, The Pavers and the Paved (New York, 1971)
164. Kenneth R. Schneider, Autokind vs. Mankind (New York, 1971)
165. Alan Lupo, Frank Colcord, and Edmund P. Fowler, Rites of Way: The Politics of Transportation in Boston and the U.S. City (Boston, 1971)
166. Richard Hebert, Highways to Nowhere: The Politics of City Transportation (Indianapolis, 1972)
167. Ronald A. Buel, Dead End: The Automobile in Mass Transportation (Englewood Cliff s, N.J. 1972)
168. John Jerome, The Death of the Automobile: The Fatal Effect of the Golden Era, 1955-1970 (New York, 1972).
169. “Volpe Endorses Plan to Negate U.S. Trust Fund,” Transport Topics (20 April 1970): 1, 7
170. Vera Hirschberg, “Forces Gather for Strong Debate over Highways with Trust Fund as Lightning Rod,” National Journal 2 (6 June 1970): 1193–1207
171. Lilley, “Urban Interests Win Transit Bill,” 2021–29
172. Denis Hayes, “Can We Bust the Highway Trust?” Saturday Review 54 (5 June 1971): 48–53
173. Jesse H. Merrell, “Volpe Proposes Busting Road Trust Fund,” Transport Topics (20 March 1972): 1, 16
174. “Volpe Snarls Highway Trust Traffic,” Environmental Action (1 April 1972): 7
175. William V. Shannon, “The Untrustworthy Highway Fund,” New York Times Magazine, 15 October 1972, 31, 120–32
176. Peter Harnick, “We Busted the Highway Trust Fund,” Environmental Action (4 August 1973): 3–4.
177. See also George M. Smerk, “Highway Act of 1973: What's in It for Mass Transit?” Passenger Transport (10 August 1973): 4–5
178. George M. Smerk, “Operating Subsidies for Urban Mass Transportation,” Traffic Quarterly 28 (October 1974): 603-18
179. George M. Smerk, The Federal Role in Urban Mass Transportation (Bloomington, 1991), 108–23.
180. Greenwood interview with Mertz, 12 March 1988, p. 94
181. Alan Altshuler, James P. Womack, and John R. Pucher, The Urban Transportation System: Politics and Policy Innovation (Cambridge, Mass. 1979), 19–42, at p. 38.
182. On the role of the Highway Action Coalition, see Michael J. Malbin, “Long Deadlock Ends in Compromise Opening Highway Trust Fund for Mass Transit,” National Journal 5 (11 August 1973): 1170.
183. On istea, see Rose, “Reframing American Highway Politics.”
184. Wolf Von Eckardt, “The Vieux Carré: A New Life,” Washington Post, 20 February 1969
185. Wolf Von Eckardt, “Victory in New Orleans,” Washington Post, 19 July 1969
186. Bill Bryan, “NO ROAD: Volpe Transfers U.S. Funds to Outer Beltway,” [New Orleans] Vieux Carré Courier, 4 July 1969
187. William M. Blair, “Volpe Vetoes a Freeway to Save French Quarter in New Orleans,” New York Times, 10 July 1969
188. Baumbach and Borah, Second Battle of New Orleans, 184–206
189. Beverly H. Wright, “New Orleans Neighborhoods Under Siege,” in Just Transportation: Dismantling Race and Class Barriers to Mobility, ed. Robert D. Bullard and Glenn S. Johnson (Gabriola Island, B.C. Canada, 1997), 121–44
190. Ari Kelman, A River and Its City: The Nature of Landscape in New Orleans (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2003), 197–221.
191. Louis F. Oberdorfer, “Memorandum for Honorable Lowell Bridwell Re: New Orleans Riverfront Expressway,” 13 April 1967, dot Records, RG 398 General Correspondence, 1967-72, box 45
192. “Trouble for Freeways,” U.S. News and World Report (11 August 1969): 76–77
193. Albert R. Karr, “Halting Highways: Volpe Stiff ens Stand on Roads Th at Disrupt Housing, Scenic Sites,” Wall Street Journal, 7 April 1970
194. Albert R. Karr, “Mr. Volpe's Surprising Achievements,” Wall Street Journal, 25 May 1971
195. Martin F. Nolan, “Volpe Alarms Roads Lobby,” Boston Globe, undated clipping, c. 1971, in Movement Against Destruction Collection, Series VIII, box 1, University of Baltimore
196. Dean and Beggs, “The Department of Transportation Comes of Age,” 209–15
197. John G. Wofford, “Participatory Planning for Boston Metro-area Transportation,” Civil Engineering 43 (April 1973): 78-81
198. Gordon Fellman and Barbara Brandt, The Deceived Majority: Politics and Protest in Middle America (New Brunswick, N.J. 1973), 57–90
199. Allan K. Sloan, Citizen Participation in Transportation Planning: The Boston Experience (Cambridge, Mass. 1974).
200. Virginia Fairweather “San Antonio: Classic ‘Stop the Freeway’ Case,” Civil Engineering 43 (July 1973): 59-61
201. “Volpe Reprieves Overton Park,” Audubon 75 (March 1973): 122
202. “Interstate Routes Stop in Several Major Cities,” The Concrete Opposition (March 1973): 1, 8
203. Nolan, “Volpe Alarms Roads Lobby”
204. Karr, “Halting Highways”
205. John A. Volpe, Internal Memorandum on “The Environmental Policy,” 26 February 1970, Movement Against Destruction Collection, Series VII, box B1
206. Russell E. Train, “The Environmental Record of the Nixon Administration,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26 (Winter 1996): 185-96. Regarding nepa's impact on the highway engineers, Lee Mertz stated in his interview with John Greenwood: “Then in 1969, out of left field, the Environmental Policy Act came onto the scene. I am puzzled to this day where it came from. It arrived with no warning. There were no hearings that I know about. There was no public debate or debate in the Congress. Just all of a sudden, boom. There it was. Nobody knew what it meant.” See Greenwood interview with Mertz, p. 79.
207. Nolan, “Volpe Alarms the Roads Lobby”
208. “Highway Officials Fear Loss of influence,” Engineering News-Record 185 (19 November 1970): 19–20
209. “Highway Users Federation Hits Volpe‘s 'Alarming’ Road Bias,” Transport Topics (1 March 1971)
210. “A Trust Fund Grab,” Transport Topics (30 June 1969): 6
211. “Trust Fund Showdown,” Transport Topics (22 September 1969): 8
212. “The Diversion Refrain,” Transport Topics (20 July 1970): 16
213. “Embattled Trust Fund,” Transport Topics (3 August 1970), 18
214. “Trust Fund Attacked,” Transport Topics (17 August 1970): 14
215. “Breaking the Trust Fund,” Transport Topics (29 March 1971): 10
216. Karr, “Halting Highways”
217. Burby, The Great American Motion Sickness, 307
218. Kilgore, John Volpe, 170–98.
219. Greenwood interview with Mertz, pp. 77–79, at p. 79
220. Marty Loken, “Braman Tells of Battling Roadbuilders,” Seattle Times, 26 November 1970
221. “Highway Expediency Stirs Braman's Wrath,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 23 October 1970
222. “fhwa Chief Rips Proposal to ‘Rob’ Highway Trust Fund,” Transport Topics (7 June 1971): 7
223. Albert R. Karr, “The Highway Lobby Aims to Prove There Is No Highway Lobby,” Wall Street Journal, 17 February 1972
224. Seely, “Francis C. Turner,” 10
225. David E. Rosenbaum, “Lobbyists Powerful in Road Fund Battle,” New York Times, 24 October 1972.
226. Thomas J. Sugrue, “All Politics Is Local: The Persistence of Localism in Twentieth-Century America,” in The Democratic Experiment: New Directions in American Political History, ed. Meg Jacobs, William J. Novak, and Julian E. Zelizer (Princeton, 2003), 301–26, at p. 302.
227. For “complex federalism” as it applied to highway policy in one state, see Michael R. Fein, Paving the Way: New York Road Building and the American State, 1880-1956 (Lawrence, Kans. 2008).
228. See also Califano, Presidential Nation, 24–29
229. Alan A. Altshuler and Robert W. Curry, “The Changing Environment of Urban Development Policy--Shared Power or Shared Impotence?” Urban Law Annual 10 (1975), 3–41
230. Hugh Heclo, “The Sixties' False Dawn: Awakenings, Movements, and Postmodern Policymaking,” Journal of Policy History 8, no. 1 (1996): 34–63
231. Sidney M. Milkis, “Remaking Government Institutions in the 1970s: Participatory Democracy and the Triumph of Administrative Politics,” Journal of Policy History 10, no. 1 (1998): 51-74; Rose, “Reframing American Highway Politics.”