National Technology Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa

International Journal of Technology and Globalisation

Volumn 1, Issue 3-4, 2005, Pages 311-342

  Lall, Sanjaya ^a   Pietrobelli, Carlo ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b ROMA TRE UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

Author keywords

innovation; national innovation systems; Sub Saharan Africa; technology; technology transfer

Indexed keywords

EID: 78650459382     PISSN: 14765667     EISSN: 17418194     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1504/ijtg.2005.008746     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Abramovitz, M. (1986) ‘Catching up, forging ahead, and falling behind’, Journal of Economic History, June, Vol. 46, No. 2, pp.385–406.
2. Amsden, A.H. (2000) The Rise of the Rest: Late Industrialization Outside the North Atlantic Region, New York: Oxford University Press.
3. Archibugi, D. and Pietrobelli, C. (2003) ‘The globalisation of technology and its implications for developing countries: windows of opportunity or further burden?’, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, Vol. 70, pp.861–883.
4. Battisti, G. and Pietrobelli, C. (2000) ‘Intra-industry gaps in technology and investments in technological capabilities: firm-level evidence from Chile’, International Review of Applied Economics, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp.253–269.
5. Berry, A. and Escandon, J. (1994) ‘Colombia’s small and medium-sized exporters and their technology systems’, Policy Research Department Working Paper, Washington, DC: The World Bank, No. 1401.
6. Biggs, T. and Srivastava, P. (1996) ‘Structural aspects of manufacturing in Sub-Saharan Africa’, World Bank Discussion Papers, Africa Technical Department Series, No. 346.
7. Biggs, T., Shah, M. and Srivastava, P. (1995) ‘Technological capabilities and learning in African enterprises’, World Bank Technical Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank, No. 288.
8. Bongenaar, B. and Szirmai, A. (2000) ‘Development and diffusion of technology, the case if TIRDO’, in A. Szirmai and P. Lapperre (Eds.) The Industrial Experience of Tanzania: A Case Study of Industrialisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, London: Macmillan.
9. Bwisa, H.M. and Gacuhi, A.R. (1997) ‘Diffusion and adaptation of technology from research institutes and universities in Kenya: an empirical investigation’, Nairobi: African Technology Policy Studies, ATPS Policy Brief.
10. Cassiolato, J.E., Lastres, H.M.M. and Maciel, M.L. (Eds.) (2003) Systems of Innovation and Development. Evidence from Brazil, Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
11. Cohen, W.M. and Levinthal, D.A. (1989) ‘Innovation and learning: the two faces of R&D’, Economic Journal, Vol. 99, No. 4, pp.569–596.
12. Collier, P. and Gunning, J.W. (1999) ‘Why has Africa grown slowly?’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp.3–22.
13. Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) (1999) CSIR Handbook, Accra, Ghana.
14. Edquist, C. (Ed.) (1997) Systems of Innovation: Technologies, Institutions and Organisations, London: Pinter.
15. Edquist, C. and McKelvey, M. (Eds.) (2000) Systems of Innovation: Growth, Competitiveness and Employment, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, Vol. 2.
16. Enos, J.L. (1995) The Pursuit of Science and Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa Under Structural Adjustment, London: Routledge.
17. Ernst, D. and Lundvall, B.Å. (1997) ‘Information technology in the learning economy. Challenges for developing countries’, DRUID Working Paper, No. 1997-12.
18. Freeman, C. (1987) Technology Policy and Economic Performance: Lessons from Japan, London: Frances Pinter.
19. Freeman, C. (1995) ‘The “National System of Innovation” in historical perspective’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp.5–24.
20. Gibbon, P. (2003) ‘The African growth and opportunity act and the global commodity chain for clothing’, World Development, Vol. 31, No. 11, pp.1809–1827.
21. Gogo, J.O. (2000) ‘Policies for technology transfer: Ghana’, Paper Prepared for UNCTAD, Accra, May.
22. Gogo, J.O., Micah, J.A., Afful, K.N. and Goka, A.M. (1998) ‘The development and management of science and technology policy in Ghana’, Final Report on Phase 1 of the Carnegie Project on S&T Policy Dialogue, New York: Carnegie Corporation, February.
23. Guerrieri, P., Iammarino, S. and Pietrobelli, C. (2001) The Global Challenge to Industrial Districts: SMEs in Italy and Taiwan, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
24. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2000) The ISO Survey of ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 Certificates – Ninth Cycle, The International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, http://www.iso.ch
25. Kingoria, G.K. and Gacuhi, A.R. (1999) ‘Basic sciences for the development of Kenya’, Nairobi: NCST and Ministry of Research and Technology, Prepared for the Conference of Basic Sciences for Development in Eastern and Southern Africa, Draft.
26. Lall, S. (1992) ‘Technological capabilities and industrialization’, World Development, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp.165–186.
27. Lall, S. (1996) Learning from the Asian Tigers: Studies in Technology and Industrial Policy, London: Macmillan.
28. Lall, S. (1998) ‘Exports of manufactures by developing countries: emerging patterns of trade and location’, Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp.54–73.
29. Lall, S. (1999a) ‘Competing with labour: skills and competitiveness in developing countries’, Issues in Development, Working Paper, Geneva: ILO, No. 31.
30. Lall, S. (2000) ‘The technological structure and performance of developing country manufactured exports, 1985–1998’, Oxford Development Studies, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp.337–369.
31. Lall, S. (2001) Competitiveness, Technology and Skills, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
32. Lall, S. (Ed.) (1999b) The Technological Response to Import Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, London: Macmillan.
33. Lall, S. and Pietrobelli, C. (2002) Failing to Compete: Technology Development and Technology Systems in Africa, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
34. Lall, S. and Pietrobelli, C. (2003) ‘Manufacturing in Sub-Saharan Africa and the need of a National Technology System’, in M. Muchie, B.Â. Lundvall and P. Gammeltoft (Eds.) The Making of African Innovation Systems, Aalborg University Press, http://www.globelics.org/index.php?module=htmlpages&func=display&pid=3
35. Lall, S. and Wangwe, S. (1998) ‘Industrial policy and industrialisation in Sub-Saharan Africa’, Journal of African Economies, Supplement, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp.70–107.
36. Lall, S. and Wignaraja, G. (1998) ‘Mauritius: dynamising export competitiveness’, Commonwealth Secretariat, Economic Paper, London: No. 33.
37. Lall, S., Barba-Navaretti, G., Teitel, S. and Wignaraja, G. (1994) Technology and Enterprise Development: Ghana under Structural Adjustment, London: Macmillan.
38. Lall, S., Robinson, P. and Wignaraja, G. (1998) ‘Zimbabwe: enhancing export competitiveness’, Study for the Ministry of Industry, Zimbabwe, and the Commonwealth Secretariat, London.
39. Lastres, H.M.M. (2003) ‘Systems of innovation and development’, Paper Presented at the 1st Globelics Conference, Rio de Janeiro, November.
40. Latsch, W. and Robinson, P. (1999) Technology and Responses of Firms to Adjustment in Zimbabwe, in S. Lall (Ed.).
41. Levy, B., Berry, A., Itoh, M., Kim, L., Nugent, J. and Urata, S. (1994) ‘Technical and marketing support systems for successful small and medium-sized enterprises in four countries’, Policy Research Department Working Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank, No. 1400.
42. List, F. (1841) The National System of Political Economy, English edition (1904), London: Longman.
43. Lundvall, B.Å. (Ed.) (1992) National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning, London: Pinter.
44. McKelvey, M. (1991) ‘How do national systems of innovation differ’, in G. Hodgson and E. Screpanti (Eds.) Rethinking Economics, Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
45. Metcalfe, J.S. (1995) ‘Technology systems and technology policy in an evolutionary framework’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp.25–46.
46. Ministry of Trade and Industry (MOTI) (1994) Uganda Industrialisation Policy and Framework 1994-1999, Kampala, Uganda.
47. Nelson, R.R. (Ed.) (1993) National Innovation Systems: A Comparative Analysis, New York: Oxford University Press.
48. Nelson, R.R. and Winter, S.J. (1982) An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
49. Ocampo, J.A., Zamagni, S., Ffrench-Davis, R. and Pietrobelli, C. (Eds.) (2000) The Globalization of Financial Markets and the Emerging Economies, Santiago: ECLAC http://www.eclac.cl/English/books/lcg2097/index.htm
50. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (1997) National Innovation Systems, Paris.
51. Pietrobelli, C. (1994) ‘Technological capabilities at the national level: an international comparison of manufacturing export performances’, Development Policy Review, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp.115–148.
52. Pietrobelli, C. (1996) ‘Emerging forms of technological co-operation: the case for technology partnerships – inner logic’, Examples and Enabling Environment, Science and Technology Issues, Geneva: UNCTAD.
53. Pietrobelli, C. (1997) ‘On the theory of technological capabilities and developing countries’ dynamic comparative advantage in manufactures’, Rivista Internazionale di Scienze Economiche e Commerciali, June, Vol. XLIV, No. 2, pp.313–338.
54. Pietrobelli, C. (1999) Industry, Competitiveness and Technological Capabilities in Chile: A New Tiger from Latin America?, London: Macmillan.
55. Pietrobelli, C. (2000) ‘The role of international technology transfer in the industrialization of developing countries’, in M. Elena and D. Schroeer (Eds.) Technology Transfer, Aldershot: Ashgate.
56. Pigato, M. (1999) ‘Foreign direct investment in Africa: old tales and new evidence’, World Bank, Africa Region, Draft.
57. Rush, H., Hobday, M., Bessant, J., Arnold, E. and Murray, R. (1996) Technology Institutes: Strategies for Best Practice, London: International Thomson Business Press.
58. Standards Association of Zimbabwe (SAZ) (1997) Annual Report 1995-1996, Harare: SAZ.
59. Sverrisson, A. (1993) Evolutionary Technical Change and Flexible Mechanisation: Entrepreneurship and Industrialisation in Kenya and Zimbabwe, Lund: Lund University Press.
60. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (1998) Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Performance and Potential, UNCTAD/ITE/Misc.5, Geneva.
61. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (1998) Survey of Foreign Firms in Uganda, Kampala: InterAfrica Corporate Ltd. for UNCTAD and UIA.
62. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (1999) Foreign Direct Investment in Africa: Performance and Potential, New York and Geneva: United Nations, Sales No. E.98.II.D.5.
63. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (various years) World Investment Report, United Nations, Geneva.
64. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (1999) Statistical Yearbook, Paris: United Nations.
65. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2002) Industrial Development Report 2002-2003, Vienna.
66. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) (2004) Industrial Development Report 2004: Industrialization, Environment and the Millennium Development Goals in Sub-Saharan Africa, Vienna.
67. Wangwe, S.M. (1995) Exporting Africa: Technology, Trade and Industrialisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, London: Routledge.
68. Wangwe, S.M. and Diyamett, B. (1998) ‘Cooperation between R&D institutions and enterprises: the case of the United Republic of Tanzania’, New Approaches to Science and Technology Cooperation and Capacity Building, Geneva: UNCTAD, pp.193–210.
69. Wangwe, S.M., Musonda, F.M. and Kweka, J.P. (1997) ‘Policies for manufacturing competitiveness: the case of Tanzania’, Dar es Salaam: Economic and Social Research Foundation.
70. Wignaraja, G. (1998) Technological Capabilities and Industrialization. The Case of Sri Lanka, London: Macmillan.
71. Wignaraja, G. and Ikiara, G. (1999) ‘Adjustment, technological capabilities and enterprise dynamics in Kenya’, in S. Lall (Ed.) The Technological Response to Import Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa, London: Macmillan, pp.57–111.
72. World Bank (1994) Adjustment in Africa: Reforms, Results, and the Road Ahead, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
73. World Bank (2004) World Development Indicators, Washington, DC.
74. Of the large and growing literature on this subject see Freeman (1987; 1995), Lundvall (1992), McKelvey (1991), Metcalfe (1995), Nelson (1993), Edquist (1997) and Edquist and McKelvey (2000). These interactions are systemic in the sense that the same elements recur in all economies and have a coherent set of predictable interactions.
75. See for instance, chapters in Nelson (1993), Ernst and Lundvall (1997) and recently Cassiolato et al. (2003), Lastres (2003) and papers presented at Globelics meetings (www.globelics.org).
76. See for instance, Lall (2001), Pietrobelli (1997) and UNIDO (2002).
77. For an up-to-date assessment see UNIDO (2004).
78. See for example on Sub-Saharan Africa Biggs et al. (1995), Lall et al. (1994), Lall (1999b), and Wangwe (1995).
79. Data on educational enrolments may be misleading because they do not take account of the quality (and drop-out rates) of the education or its relevance for local industry. Note that more up-to-date data on the breakdown of tertiary education are not available from UNESCO.
80. See Biggs et al. (1995), Lall et al. (1994), Lall (1999b) and Wangwe (1995).
81. http://www.iso9000.org
82. This evidence was collected by the authors in fieldwork funded by UNCTAD, the Commonwealth Secretariat, the European Commission and the World Bank during 2002 and 2001. See Lall and Pietrobelli (2002) for further details.
83. Analysts trained by the GSB over the years have come from Eritrea, Ethiopia, Mauritius, Zanzibar and other countries.
84. Authors’ field visit in 1997, Lall et al. (1998) and Lall and Pietrobelli (2002).
85. The UK government, in the heyday of the Thatcher laissez faire approach to manufacturing, promoted the ISO 9000 series by offering subsidies of 50% of consultancy services; the aggressive promotion campaign has led the UK to have the highest number of ISO certificates in the world (Lall et al., 1998).
86. In conjunction with the Kenyan and Tanzanian standards bureaux, UNBS is also involved in the elaboration of East African harmonised standards within the framework of East African Cooperation.
87. These include: the improved fish-smoking equipment, locally known as the Chorkor smoker; instant foods such as fufu flours from plantain, cocoyam, yam and cow-pea, fermented cassava meal, improved kokonte powder.
88. The main operational projects include: the Value Added Meat Products to improve meat processing capabilities of Ugandan firms, funded by FAO and GTZ from 1997 to 1999 ($US1.4 million); the Fermented African Dairy Products Project, essentially a training project funded by DANIDA and the World Association of Industrial and Technological Research Organisations (WAITRO) from 1997 to 1999 (about $US160,000).
89. The only exception mentioned was the development of particle-board based on rice husk. This was undertaken by an MSc student at the University of Dar es Salaam using TIRDO facilities, and did not involve the institute’s research staff.
90. See Lall and Pietrobelli (2002) for details.
91. The reorganisation involved substantive retrenchment, from 700 to 289, with almost all the shedding confined to support staff rather than technical personnel. Productivity indicators were put in place, based on impact on industry rather than research publications.
92. The comparison of technological capabilities in Zimbabwe with those in Kenya and Tanzania suggested that its industrial enterprises were technologically in advance of its neighbours (Lall, 1999b). This was also the conclusion of the total factor productivity analysis in a World Bank study (Biggs et al., 1995), showing that average technical efficiency was higher in Zimbabwe than in Kenya or Ghana. However, Lall (1999b) argued that capabilities in Zimbabwe were well below levels reached in other developing countries, and that this was being manifested in the competitive difficulties facing enterprises being exposed to direct import competition.
93. The seven research institutes planned in Zimbabwe are: Biotechnology Research Institute This institute, with five divisions, will work on such projects as the development of drought-resistant maize species, micropropagation of disease-resistant potatoes and food irradiation. Building Research Institute The institute will use local materials and waste materials for lower cost construction, get lower cost technologies from other countries and develop cheap concrete panels for walls and roofing. Environment and Remote Sensing Institute This institute was one of the first to become operational, and by 1998 had a remote sensing and information system and an environment management unit. Production Engineering Institute This institute is to provide a range of common services and technological assistance to manufacturing industry. It will have a foundry, machine shop, fabrication workshop, CNC machine section, workshop with tribology, corrosion and other testing facilities, and materials science. It will provide pilot plant facilities and consultancy services to industry. This institute is not intended to do research and development; thus, it will be more of a productivity centre than a normal technology institute. This is likely to be extremely useful if it lives up to expectations: it will help industry to improve quality and develop new products and processes, diffuse technology and provide troubleshooting services. The intention is to work a great deal with SMEs and informal sector enterprises, providing training for free, and also management, finance, business and other forms of assistance that such enterprises need. It plans to have a team to work with managers, giving advice on entire production systems and devising systems for improving them. The fact that the institute is designed to provide productivity services also means that Zimbabwe would still lack a full-fledged R&D centre for industry. Electronics Technology Institute This institute is intended to provide systems engineering services rather than electronics manufacturing or design technology. It will allow Zimbabwe to ‘open up’ and adapt software packages that are presently imported in their entirety. It may give it a head start in software production and may be a source of comparative advantage in the region, though it is difficult to see Zimbabwe emerging as a competitor in the larger arena. Energy Technology Institute This will work on energy conservation, nonconventional sources of energy and efficient generation from conventional sources. National Metrology Institute This was mentioned in the section on standards, and in 1998 was still at the planning stage.
94. See Lall and Pietrobelli (2002), Biggs et al. (1995), Enos (1995), Lall and Wignaraja (1998), Latsch and Robinson (1999), Wignaraja and Ikiara (1999) and Wangwe and Diyamett (1998).