Guideline for the optimal use of blood cultures

South African Medical Journal

Volumn 100, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 839-843

  Ntusi, Ntobeko ^a   Aubin, Lindsey ^a   Oliver, Stephen ^a   Whitelaw, Andrew ^a   Mendelson, Marc ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; BACTEREMIA; BLOOD CULTURE; BLOOD SAMPLING; CULTURE OPTIMIZATION; FALSE POSITIVE RESULT; FEVER; FUNGEMIA; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HYPOTENSION; LETHARGY; LEUKOCYTOSIS; LEUKOPENIA; MORTALITY; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME; TACHYCARDIA; TACHYPNEA;

EID: 78650084080     PISSN: 02569574     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7196/samj.4217     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. Murray PR, Traynor P, Hopson D. Critical assessment of blood culture techniques: analysis of recovery of obligate and facultative anaerobes, strict aerobic bacteria, and fungi in aerobic and anaerobic blood culture bottles. J Clin Microbiol 1992;30:1462-1468.
2. Morris AJ, Wilson ML, Mirrett S, Reller LB. Rationale for selective use of anaerobic blood cultures. J Clin Microbiol 1993;31:2110-2113.
3. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Consensus Conference: Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med 1992;20:864-874.
4. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, et al. 2001 SCCM/ESCIM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit Care Med 2003;31:1250-1256.
5. Balk RA. Severe sepsis and septic shock. Definitions, epidemiology, and clinical manifestations. Crit Care Clin 2000;16:179-192.
6. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis in the US: Analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001;29:1303-1310.
7. Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1546-1554.
8. Vincent JL, Sakr Y, Sprung CL, et al. Sepsis in European intensive care units: results of the SOAP study. Crit Care Med 2006;34:344-353.
9. Padkin A, Goldfrad C, Brady AR, et al. Epidemiology of severe sepsis occurring in the first 24 hours in intensive care units in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2332-2338.
10. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 2004;32:858-873.
11. Remick DG. Pathophysiology of sepsis. Am J Pathol 2007;170:1435-1444.
12. Bone RC. Immunologic dissonance: A continuing evolution in our understanding of the systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and the multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Ann Intern Med 1996:125:680-687.
13. Bone RC. The pathogenesis of sepsis. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:457-469.
14. Peters K, Unger RE, Brunner J, Kirkpatrick CJ. Molecular basis of endothelial dysfunction in sepsis. Cardiovasc Res 2003;60:49-57.
15. Rigato O, Salomao R. Impaired production of interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha but not of interleukin-10 in whole blood of patients with sepsis. Shock 2003;19:113-116.
16. Pinsky MR, Matuschak GM. Multiple organ failure: Failure of host defense homeostasis. Crit Care Clin 1989;5:199-220.
17. Pugin J. Recognition of bacteria and bacterial products by host immune cells in sepsis. In: Vincent JL, ed. Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1996:11.
18. Piagnerelli M, Boudjeltia KZ, Vanhaeverbeek M, Vincent JL. Red blood cell rheology in sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:1052-1061.
19. Crouser ED, Julian MW, Blaho DV, Pfeiffer DR. Endotoxin-induced mitochondrial damage correlates with impaired respiratory activity. Crit Care Med 2002;30:276-284.
20. Marshall JC, Watson RW. Apoptosis in the resolution of systemic inflammation. In: Vincent JL, ed. Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1997:100.
21. Aird WC. The role of the endothelium in severe sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Blood 2003;101:3765-3777.
22. Shanson DC. Blood culture technique: current controversies. J Antimicrob Chemother 1990;25(Suppl C):17-29.
23. Aronson M, Bor D. Blood cultures. Ann Intern Med 1987;106:246-253.
24. Chandrasekar PH, Brown WJ. Clinical issues of blood cultures. Arch Intern Med 1994;154:841-849.
25. Peduzzi P, Shatney C, Sheagren J, Sprung C. Predictors of bacteremia and gram-negative bacteremia in patients with sepsis. Veterans Affairs Systemic Sepsis Cooperative Study Group. Arch Intern Med 1992;152:529-535.
26. Harris RL, Musher DM, Bloom K, et al. Manifestations of sepsis. Arch Int Med 1987;147:1895-1906.
27. von Landenberg P, Shoenfeld Y. New approaches in the diagnosis of sepsis. Isr Med Ass J 2001;3:439-442.
28. Cohen J. Microbiological requirements for studies of sepsis. In: Sibbald WJ, Vincent JL, eds. Clinical Trials for the Treatment of Sepsis. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1995:29.
29. Cursons RT, Jeyerajah E, Sleigh JW. The use of polymerase chain reaction to detect septicemia in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 1999;27:937-940.
30. Bone RC, Fisher CJ, Clemmer TP, et al. Sepsis syndrome: A valid clinical entity. Methylprednisolone Severe Sepsis Study Group. Crit Care Med 1989;17:389-393.
31. Brun-Buisson C, Doyon F, Carlet J, et al. Bacteremia and severe sepsis in adults: A multicenter prospective survey in ICUs and wards of 24 hospitals. French Bacteremia-Sepsis Study Group. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 1996;154:617-624.
32. Shorr AF, Tabak YP, Killian AD, et al. Healthcare-associated bloodstream infection: A distinct entity? Insights from a large U.S. database. Crit Care Med 2006;34:2588-2595.
33. Henke PK, Polk HC Jr. Efficacy of blood cultures in the critically ill surgical patient. Surgery 1996;120:752-758.
34. Norberg A, Christopher NC, Ramundo ML, et al. Contamination rates of blood cultures obtained by dedicated phlebotomy vs. intravenous catheter. JAMA 2003;289:726-729.
35. Bates DW, Goldman L, Lee TH. Contamination blood cultures and resource utilization. The true consequences of false-positive results. JAMA 1991;265:365-369.
36. McKenzie R, Reimer LG. Effect of antimicrobials on blood cultures in endocarditis. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1987;8:165-172.
37. Washington JA II, Ilstrup DM. Blood cultures. Issues and controversies. Rev Infect Dis 1986;8:792-802.
38. Weinstein MP. Current blood culture methods and systems: Clinical concepts, technology and interpretation of results. Clin Infect Dis 1996;23:40-46.
39. Pazin GJ, Saul S, Thompson ME. Blood culture positivity: suppression by outpatient antibiotic therapy in patients with bacterial endocarditis. Arch Intern Med 1982;142:263-268.
40. Connell TG, Rele M, Cowley D, et al. How reliable is a negative blood culture result? Volume of blood submitted for culture in routine practice in a children's hospital. Pediatrics 2007;119:891.
41. Reller LB, Murray PR, MacLowry JD. Blood Cultures II. In: Washington JA II, Cumitech IA, eds. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology,1982.
42. Krumholz HM, Cummings S, York M. Blood culture phlebotomy: switching needles does not prevent contamination. Ann Intern Med 1990;113:290-292.
43. Leisure MK, Moore DM, Schwartzman JD, et al. Changing the needle when inoculating blood cultures: A no benefit and high risk procedure. JAMA 1990;264:2111-2112.
44. Spitalnic SJ, Woolard RH, Mermel LA. The significance of changing needles when inoculating blood cultures: A meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 1995;21:1103-1106.
45. Little JR, Murray PR, Traynor PS, Spitznagel E. A randomized trial of povidone-iodine compared with tincture for venipuncture site disinfection: Effects on rates of blood culture contamination. Am J Med 1999;107:119-125.
46. Eskira S, Gilad J, Schlaeffer P, et al. Reduction of blood culture contamination rate by an educational intervention. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006;12:818-821.
47. Lee A, Mirrett S, Reller LB, Weinstein MP. Detection of blood stream infections in adults: how many blood cultures are needed? J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:3546-3548.
48. Weinstein MP, Reller LB, Murphy JR, Lichtenstein KA. The clinical significance of positive blood cultures: a comprehensive analysis of 500 episodes of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. I. Laboratory and epidemiologic observations. Rev Infect Dis 1983;5:35-53.
49. Washington JA II. Blood cultures: principles and techniques. Mayo Clin Proc 1975;50:91-98.
50. Noskin GA, Phair JP. Approach to the patient with bacteremia and sepsis. In: Kelly WN, Dupont HL, Glick JH, et al., eds. Textbook of Internal Medicine. Wickford RI, USA: Lippincott-Raven Publishers, 1997:1575-1581.
51. Strand CL. Blood cultures: consensus recommendations in 1988. Microbiology no. MB 88-1. American Society for Clinical Pathologists Check Sample Continuing Education Program. Chicago: American Society for Clinical Pathologists,1988.
52. Ilstrup DM, Washington JA II. The importance of volume of blood cultures in the detection of bacteremia and fungaemia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1983;1:107-110.
53. Li J, Plorde JJ, Carlson LG. Effects of volume and periodicity on blood cultures. J Clin Microbiol 1994;32:2829-2831.
54. Mermel LA, Maki D. Detection of bacteremia in adults: Consequences of culturing an inadequate volume of blood. Ann Intern Med 1993;119:270-272.
55. Schelonka RL, Chai MK, Yoder BA, et al. Volume of blood required to detect common neonatal pathogens. J Pediatr 1996;129:275-278.
56. Brown DR, Kutler D, Rai B, et al. Bacterial concentration and blood volume required for a positive blood culture. J Perinatol 1995;15:157-159.
57. Isaacman DJ, Karasic RB, Reynolds EA, Kost SI. Effect of number of blood cultures and volume of blood on detection of bacteremia in children. J Pediatr 1996;128:190-195.
58. Plorde JJ, Tenover FC, Carlson LG. Specimen volume versus yield in the BACTEC blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol 1985;22:292-295.
59. Tenney JH, Reller LB, Mirrett S, Wang W-LL, Weinstein MP. Controlled evaluation of the volume of blood cultured in detection of bacteremia and fungemia. J Clin Microbiol 1982;15:558-561.
60. O'Hara CM, Weinstein MP, Miller JM. Manual and automated systems for detection and identification of microorganisms. In: Murray PR, Baron EJ, Jorgensen JH, Pfaller MA, Yolken RH, eds. Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 8th ed. Washington DC: ASM Press, 2003.
61. Reimer LG, Wilson ML, Weinstein MP. Update on detection of bacteraemia and fungaemia. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997:10:444-465.
62. Mylotte JM, Tayara A. Blood cultures: clinical aspects and controversies. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000;10:157-163.
63. Lazarovitch T, Freimann S, Shapira G, Blank H. Decrease in anaerobe-related bacteraemias and increase in Bacteroides species isolation rate from 1998 to 2007: a retrospective study (in press). Anaerobe 2009; doi:10.1016/j.anaerobe.2009.09.003.
64. Dorsher CW, Rosenblatt JE, Wilson WR, Ilstrup DM. Anaerobic bacteremia: decreasing rate over 15- year period. Rev Infect Dis 1991;3:633-636.
65. Iwata K, Takahashi M. Is anaerobic blood culture necessary? If so, who needs it? Am J Med Sci 2008;336:58-63.
66. Ciobutaro P, Lishner M, Kilan A, et al. Decreasing the use of anaerobic blood culture bottles in selected febrile patients - is it reasonable? Eur J Intern Med 2005;16:485-488.
67. Karunakaran R, Raja NS, Quek KF, et al. Evaluation of the routine use of the anaerobic bottle when using the BACTEC blood culture system. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2007;40:445-449.
68. Riley JA, Heiter BJ, Bourbeau PP. Comparison of recovery of blood culture isolates from two BacT/ ALERT FAN aerobic blood culture bottles with recovery from one FAN aerobic bottle and one FAN anaerobic bottle. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:213-217.
69. Kirby JE, Delaney M, Qian Q, Gold HS. Optimal use of Myco/F Lytic and standard BACTEC blood culture bottles for detection of yeast and mycobacteria. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2009;133:93-96.
70. Horvath LL, George BJ, Hospenthal DR. Detecetion of fifteen species of Candida in a automated blood culture system. J Clin Microbiol 2007;45:3062-3064.
71. Horvath LL, Ospenthal DR, Murray CK, Dooley DP. Detection of simulated candidaemia by the Bactec 9240 system with Plus Aerobic/F and Anaerobic/F blood culture bottles. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:4714-4717.