Antiepileptic drug interactions - principles and clinical implications

Current Neuropharmacology

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 254-267

  Johannessen, Svein I ^a   Landmark, Cecilie Johannessen ^b  

^a OSLO UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

^b OSLO METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY   (Norway)

Author keywords

Antiepileptic drugs; Interactions; Metabolism; Pharmacokinetics

Indexed keywords

ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CLOBAZAM; CLONAZEPAM; CYTOCHROME P450; ESLICARBAZEPINE ACETATE; ETHOSUXIMIDE; ETIRACETAM; FELBAMATE; GABAPENTIN; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE; HARKOSERIDE; LAMOTRIGINE; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; OXCARBAZEPINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PREGABALIN; PRIMIDONE; RUFINAMIDE; STIRIPENTOL; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN; ZONISAMIDE;

ARTICLE; DEMETHYLATION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG CONJUGATION; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG GLUCURONIDATION; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG OXIDATION; DRUG PROTEIN BINDING; DRUG SENSITIVITY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME INDUCTION; ENZYME INHIBITION; EPILEPSY; HUMAN; HYDROLYSIS; PHARMACOGENETICS; PROTEIN DEGRADATION; URINARY EXCRETION;

EID: 78549242650     PISSN: 1570159X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157015910792246254     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. Johannessen Landmark, C. Relations between mechanisms of action and clinical efficacy of antiepileptic drugs in non-epilepsy conditions. CNS Drugs 2008, 22, 27-47.
2. Johannessen Landmark, C.; Larsson, P.G.; Rytter, E.; Johannessen, S.I. Antiepileptic drugs in epilepsy and other disorders: A population-based study of prescriptions. Epilepsy Res. 2009, 87, 31-39.
3. Tsiropoulos, I.; Gichangi, A.; Andersen, M.; Bjerrum, L.; Gaist, D.; Hallas, J. Trends in utilization of antiepileptic drugs in Denmark. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2006, 113, 405-411. Erratum in: Acta Neurol. Scand. 2006, 114, 70.
4. van de Vrie-Hoekstra, N.W.; de Vries, T.W.; van den Berg, P.B.; Brouwer, O.F.; de Jong-van den Berg, L.T. Antiepileptic drug utilization in children from 1997-2005-a study from the Netherlands. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2008, 64, 1013-1020.
5. Johannessen Landmark, C.; Rytter, E.; Johannessen, S.I. Clinical use of antiepileptic drugs at a referral center for epilepsy. Seizure 2007, 16, 356-364.
6. Rytter, E.; Johannessen Landmark, C.; Johannessen, S.I. Admission of children to a referral center for epilepsy-does it make a difference? Seizure 2009, 18, 573-579.
7. Levy, R.H.; Collins, C. Risk and predictability of drug interactions in the elderly. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2007, 81, 235-251.
8. Hachad, H.; Ragueneau-Majlessi, I.; Levy, R.H. New antiepileptic drugs: review on drug interactions. Ther. Drug Monit. 2002, 24, 91-103.
9. Patsalos, P.N.; Fröscher, W.; Pisani, F.; van Rijn, C.M. The importance of drug interactions in epilepsy therapy. Epilepsia 2002, 43, 365-385.
10. Patsalos, P.N.; Perucca, E. Clinically important drug interactions in epilepsy: general features and interactions between antiepileptic drugs. Lancet Neurol. 2003, 2, 347-356.
11. Patsalos, P.N.; Perucca, E. Clinically important drug interactions in epilepsy: interactions between antiepileptic drugs and other drugs. Lancet Neurol. 2003, 2, 473-481.
12. Perucca, E. Clinically relevant drug interactions with antiepileptic drugs. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2006, 61, 246-255.
13. Johannessen Landmark, C.; Patsalos, P.N. Drug interactions involving the new second-and third-generation antiepileptic drugs. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2010, 10 (1), 119-40.
14. Johannessen, S.I.; Landmark, C.J. Value of therapeutic drug monitoring in epilepsy. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2008, 8, 929-939.
15. Johannessen, S.I.; Tomson, T. Pharmacokinetic variability of newer antiepileptic drugs: when is monitoring needed? Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2006, 45, 1061-1075.
16. Patsalos, P.N.; Berry, D.J.; Bourgeois, B.F.; Cloyd, J.C.; Glauser, T.A.; Johannessen, S.I.; Leppik, I.E.; Tomson, T.; Perucca, E. Antiepileptic drugs--best practice guidelines for therapeutic drug monitoring: a position paper by the subcommission on therapeutic drug monitoring, ILAE Commission on Therapeutic Strategies. Epilepsia, 2008, 49, 1239-1276.
17. Anderson, G.D. Pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and pharmacogenetic targeted therapy of antiepileptic drugs. Ther. Drug Monit. 2008, 2, 173-180.
18. Williams, J.A.; Hyland, R.; Jones, B.C.; Smith, D.A.; Hurst, S.; Goosen, T.C.; Peterkin, V.; Koup, J.R.; Ball, S.E. Drug-drug interactions for UDP-glucuronosyltransferase substrates: a pharmacokinetic explanation for typically observed low exposure (AUCi/AUC) ratios. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2004, 32, 1201-1208.
19. Zhou, S.F.; Xue, C.C.; Yu, X.Q.; Li, C.; Wang, G. Clinically important drug interactions potentially involving mechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 and the role of therapeutic drug monitoring. Ther. Drug Monit. 2007, 29, 687-710.
20. Sirot, E.J.; van der Velden, J.W.; Rentsch, K.; Eap, C.B.; Baumann, P. Therapeutic drug monitoring and pharmacogenetic tests as tools in pharmacovigilance. Drug Saf. 2006, 29, 735-768.
21. Zhou, S.F. Polymorphism of human cytochrome P450 2D6 and its clinical significance: Part I. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2009, 48, 689-723.
22. Zhou, S.F. Polymorphism of human cytochrome P450 2D6 and its clinical significance: Part II. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2009, 48, 761-804.
23. Wang, L.S.; Zhu, B.; Abd El-Aty, A.M.; Zhou, G.; Li, Z.; Wu, J. The influence of St John's Wort on CYP2C19 activity with respect to genotype. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2004, 44, 577-581.
24. UGT database, Accessed June 2009 at: http://som.flinders.edu.au/ FUSA/ClinPharm/UGT/ or
25. UGT database, Accessed June 2009 at: http://www.pharmacogenomics.pha.ulaval.ca/sgc/ugt_alleles/
26. Green, M.D.; Bishop, W.P.; Tephly, T.R. Expressed human UGT1.4 protein catalyzes the formation of quaternary ammoniumlinked glucuronides. Drug Metab. Dispos. 1995, 23, 299-302.
27. Chung, J.Y.; Cho, J.Y.; Yu, K.S.; Kim, J.R.; Lim, K.S.; Sohn, D.R.; Shin, S.G.; Jang, I.J. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic interaction of lorazepam and valproic acid in relation to UGT2B7 genetic polymorphism in healthy subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2008, 83, 595-600.
28. Löscher, W.; Klotz, U.; Zimprich, F.; Schmidt, D. The clinical impact of pharmacogenetics on the treatment of epilepsy. Epilepsia 2009, 50, 1-23.
29. Mintzer, S.; Mattson, R.T. Should enzyme-inducing antiepileptic drugs be considered first-line agents? Epilepsia 2009, 50(Suppl. 8), 42-50.
30. Verrotti, A.; Coppola, G.; Parisi, P.; Mohn, A.; Chiarelli, F. Bone and calcium metabolism and antiepileptic drugs. Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg. 2009, 112, 1-10.
31. Beydoun, A.; D'Souza, J.; Hebert, D.; Doty, P. Lacosamide: pharmacology, mechanisms of action and pooled efficacy and safety data in partial-onset seizures. Expert Rev. Neurother. 2009, 9, 33-42.
32. Halász, P.; Kälviäinen, R.; Mazurkiewicz-Beldzinska, M.; Rosenow, F.; Doty, P.; Hebert, D.; Sullivan, T. Adjunctive lacosamide for partial-onset seizures: Efficacy and safety results from a randomized controlled trial. Epilepsia 2009, 50, 443-453.
33. Bialer, M.; Johannessen, S.I.; Levy, R.H.; Perucca, E.; Tomson, T.; White, H.S. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: A summary of the Ninth Eilat Conference (EILAT IX). Epilepsy Res. 2009, 83, 1-43.
34. Brodie, M.J.; Rosenfeld, W.E.; Vazquez, B.; Sachdeo, R.; Perdomo, C.; Mann, A.; Arroyo, S. Rufinamide for the adjunctive treatment of partial seizures in adults and adolescents: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 2009, 50, 1899-1909.
35. Perucca, E.; Cloyd, J.; Critchley, D.; Fuseau, E. Rufinamide: clinical pharmacokinetics and concentration-response relationships in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2008, 49, 1123-1141.
36. May, T.W.; Rambeck, B. Serum concentrations of valproic acid: influence of dose and comedication. Ther. Drug Monit. 1985, 7, 387-390.
37. Besag, F.M.; Berry, D.J.; Pool, F.; Newbery, J.E.; Subel, B. Carbamazepine toxicity with lamotrigine: pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic interaction? Epilepsia 1998, 39, 183-187.
38. Palmer, K.J.; McTavish, D. Felbamate. A review of its pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in epilepsy. Drugs 1993, 45, 1041-1065.
39. Wagner, M.L.; Graves, N.M.; Marienau, K.; Holmes, G.B.; Remmel.R.P.; Leppik, I.E. Discontinuation of phenytoin and carbamazepine in patients receiving felbamate. Epilepsia 1991, 32, 398-406.
40. Armijo, J.A.; Bravo, J.J.; Cuadrado, A.; Herranz, J.L. Lamotrigine serum concentration-to-dose ratio: influence of age and concomitant antiepileptic drugs and dosage implications. Ther. Drug Monit. 1999, 21, 182-190.
41. May, T.W.; Rambeck, B.; Jürgens, U. Influence of oxcarbazepine and methsuximide on lamotrigine concentrations in epileptic patients with and without valproic acid comedication: results of a retrospective study. Ther. Drug Monit. 1999, 21, 175-181.
42. Hirsch, L.J.; Arif, H., Buchsbaum, R.; Weintraub, D.; Lee, J.; Chang, J.T.; Resor, S.R. Jr.; Basil, C.W. Effect of age and comedication on levetiracetam pharmacokinetics and tolerability. Epilepsia 2007, 48, 1351-1359.
43. May, T.W.; Rambeck, B.; Jürgens, U. Serum concentrations of levetiracetam in epileptic patients: the influence of dose and comedication. Ther. Drug Monit. 2003, 25, 690-699.
44. Perucca, E.; Gidal, B.E.; Baltes, E. Effects of antiepileptic comedication on levetiracetam pharmacokinetics: a pooled analysis of data from randomized adjunctive therapy trials. Epilepsy Res. 2003, 53, 47-56.
45. McKee, P.J.; Blacklaw, J.; Forrest, G.; Gillham, R.A.; Walker, S.M.; Conelly, D.; Brodie, M. A double-blind, placebo-controlled interaction study between oxcarbazepine and carbamazepine, sodium valproate and phenytoin in epileptic patients. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1994, 37, 27-32.
46. Tartara, A.; Galimberti, C.A.; Manni, R.; Morini, R.; Limido, G.; Gatti, G. The pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine and its active metabolite 10-hydroxy-carbazepine in healthy subjects and in epileptic patients treated with phenobarbital or valproic acid. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1993, 36, 366-368.
47. May, T.; Rambeck, B.; Neb, R.; Jürgens, U. Serum concentrations of pregabalin in patients with epilepsy: The influence of dose, age, and comedication. Ther. Drug Monit. 2007, 29, 789-794.
48. Bialer, M.; Johannessen, S.I.; Kupferberg, H.J.; Levy, R.H.; Loiseau P.; Perucca, E. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: a summary of the Fifth Eilat conference (Eilat V). Epilepsy Res. 2001, 43, 11-58.
49. Adín, J.; Gómez, M.C.; Blanco, Y.; Herranz, J.L.; Armijo, J.A. Topiramate serum concentration-to-dose ratio: influence of age and concomitant antiepileptic drugs and monitoring implications. Ther. Drug Monit. 2004, 26, 251-257.
50. Ojemann, L.M.; Shastri, R.A.; Wilensky, A.J.; Friel, P.N.; Levy, R.H.; McLean, J.R.; Buchanan, R.A. Comparative pharmacokinetics of zonisamide (CI-912) in epileptic patients on carbamazepine or phenytoin monotherapy. Ther. Drug Monit. 1986, 8, 293-296.
51. Bialer, M.; Johannessen, S.I.; Kupferberg, H.J.; Levy, R.H.; Perucca, E.; Tomson, T. Progress report on new antiepileptic drugs: A summary of the Eigth Eilat Conference (EILAT VIII). Epilepsy Res. 2007, 73, 1-52.
52. May, T.W.; Rambeck, B.; Jürgens, U. Serum concentrations of lamotrigine in epileptic patients: the influence of dose and comedication. Ther. Drug Monit. 1996, 18, 523-531.
53. Albani, F.; Theodore, W.H.; Washington, P.; Devinsky, O.; Bromfield, E.; Porter, R.J.; Nice, F.J. Effect of felbamate on plasma concentrations of carbamazepine and its metabolites. Epilepsia 1991, 32, 130-132.
54. Contin, M.; Riva, R.; Albani, F.; Baruzzi, A. Effect of felbamate on clobazam and its metabolite kinetics in patients with epilepsy. Ther. Drug Monit. 1999, 21, 604-608.
55. Henriksen, O.; Johannessen, S.I. Clinical and pharmacokinetic observations on sodium valproate -a 5-year follow-up study in 100 children with epilepsy. Acta Neurol. Scand. 1982, 65, 504-523.
56. Anderson, G.D.; Yau, M.K.; Gidal, B.E.; Harris, S.J.; Levy, R.H.; Lai, A.A.; Wolf, K.B.; Wargin, W.A.; Dren, A.T. Bidirectional interaction of valproate and lamotrigine in healthy subjects. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1996, 60, 145-156.
57. Graves, N.M.; Holmes, G.B.; Fuerst, R.H.; Leppik, I.E. Effect of felbamate on phenytoin and carbamazepine serum concentrations. Epilepsia 1989, 30, 225-229.
58. Reidenberg, P.; Glue, P.; Banfield, C.R.; Colucci, R.D.; Mehaan, J.N.; Radwanski, E.; Mojavarian, P.; Lin, C.C.; Nesamis, J.; Guillaume, M. Effects of felbamate on the pharmacokinetics of phenobarbital. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1995, 58, 279-287.
59. Sachdeo, R.; Wagner, M. L.; Sachdeo, S.; Shumaker, R. C.; Lyness, W. H.; Rosenberg, A.; Ward, D.; Perhach, J.L. Coadministration of phenytoin and felbamate: evidence of additional phenytoin dose-reduction requirements based on pharmacokinetics and tolerability with increasing doses of felbamate. Epilepsia 1999, 40, 1122-1128.
60. Wagner, M.L.; Graves, N.M.; Leppik, I.E.; Remmel, R.P.; Shumaker, R.C.; Ward, D.L.; Perhach, J.L. The effect of felbamate on valproic acid disposition. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1994, 56, 494-502.
61. Hossain, M.; Sallas, W.; Gasparini, M.; D'Souza, J. Drug-drug interaction profile of oxcarbazepine in children and adults. Neurology 1999, 52(Suppl. 2), A525.
62. Levy, R.H.; Lin, H.S.; Blehaut, H.M.; Tor, J.A. Pharmacokinetics of stiripentol in normal man: evidence of nonlinearity. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1983, 23, 523-533.
63. Levy, R.H.; Loiseau, P.; Guyot, M.; Blehaut, H.M.; Tor, J.; Moreland, T.A. Stiripentol kinetics in epilepsy: nonlinearity and interactions. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1984, 36, 661-669.
64. Tran, A.; Vauzelle-Kervroedan, F.; Rey, E.; Pous, G.; d'this, P.; Chiron, C.; Dulac, O.; Renard, D.; Olive, G. Effect of stiripentol on carbamazepine plasma concentration and metabolism in epileptic children. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1996, 50, 497-500.
65. Trojnar, M.K.; Wojtal, K.; Trojnar, M.P.; Czuczwar, S.J. Stiripentol. A novel antiepileptic drug. Pharmacol. Rep. 2005, 57, 154-160.
66. Besag, F.M.; Berry, D. Interactions between antiepileptic and antipsychotic drugs. Drug Saf. 2006, 29, 95-118.
67. Mula, M. Anticonvulsants - antidepressants pharmacokinetic drug interactions: the role of the CYP450 system in psychopharmacology. Curr. Drug Metab. 2008, 9, 730-737.
68. Bartoli, A.; Gatti, G.; Cipolla, G.; Barzaghi, N.; Veliz, G.; Fattore, C.; Mumford, J.; Perucca, E. A double blind placebo, placebo controlled study on the effect on in vivo parameters of hepatic microsomal enzyme induction and on the kinetics of steroid oral contraceptives in healthy female volunteers. Epilepsia 1997, 38, 702-707.
69. Bockbrader, H.N.; Posvar, E.L.; Hunt, T.; Randinitis, E.J. Pregabalin does not alter the effectiveness of an oral contraceptive. Neurology 2004, 62(Suppl. 5), A314 (Abstract P04.097).
70. Eldon, M.A.; Underwood, B.A.; Randinitis, E.J.; Sedman, A.J. Gabapentin does not interact with a contraceptive regimen of norethindrone acetate and ethinyl estradiol. Neurology 1998, 50, 1146-1148.
71. Griffith, S.G.; Dai, Y. Effect of zonisamide on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a combination ethinyl estradiolnorethindrone oral contraceptive in healthy women. Clin. Ther. 2004, 26, 2056-2065.
72. Mengel, H.B.; Houston, A.; Back, D.J. An evaluation of the interaction between tiagabine and oral contraceptives in female volunteers. J. Pharm. Med. 1994, 4, 141-150.
73. Ragueneau-Majlessi, I.; Levy, R.H.; Janik, F. Levetiracetam does not alter the pharmacokinetics of an oral contraceptive in healthy women. Epilepsia 2002, 43, 697-702.
74. Crawford, P.; Lee, P. Gender difference in management of epilepsy-what women are hearing. Seizure 1999, 8, 135-139.
75. Pack, A.M.; Davis A.R.; Kritzer, J.Y.; Camus, A. Antiepileptic drugs: Are women aware of interactions with oral contraceptives and potential teratogenicity? Epilepsy Behav. 2009, 14, 640-644.
76. Aguglia, U.; Barboni, G.; Battino, D.; Cavazzuti, G.B.; Citernesi, A.; Corosu, R.; Guzetta, F.M.; Ianetti, P.; Mamolo, D.; Patella, A.; Pavone, L.; Perucca, E.; Primiero, F.; Pruna, D.; Savasta, S.; Specchio, L.M.; Verotti, A. Italian consensus conference on epilepsy and pregnancy, labor and puerperium. Epilepsia 2009, 50(Suppl. 1), 7-23.
77. Doose, D.R.; Brodie, M.J.; Wilson, E.A.; Chadwick, D.; Oxbury, J.; Berry, D.J.; Schwabe, S.; Bialer, M. Topiramate and lamotrigine pharmacokinetics during repetitive monotherapy and combination therapy in epilepsy patients. Epilepsia 2003, 44, 917-922.
78. Kanner, A.M.; Gidal, B.E. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions of psychotropic drugs with antiepileptic drugs. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 2008, 83, 397-416.
79. Ucar, M.; Neuvonen, M.; Luurila, H.; Dahlqvist, R.; Neuvonen, P.J.; Mjörndal, T. Carbamazepine markedly reduces serum concentrations of simvastatin and simvastatin acid. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2004, 59, 879-882.
80. Elger, C.; Halász, P.; Maia, J.; Almeida, L.; Soares da-Silva, P. Efficacy and safety of eslicarbazepine acetate as adjunctive treatment in adults with refractory partial-onset seizures: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group phase III study. Epilepsia 2009, 50, 454-463.
81. Saano, V.; Glue, P.; Banfield, C.R.; Reidenberg, P.; Colucci, P.; Mehaan, J.W.; Haring, P.; Radwanski, E.; Nomeir, A.; Lin, C.C. Effects of felbamate on the pharmacokinetics of a low-dose combination oral contraceptive. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1995, 58, 523-531.
82. Tisdel, K.A.; Israel, D.S.; Kolb, K.W. Warfarin-felbamate interaction. First report. Ann. Pharmacother. 1994, 28, 805.
83. Fattore, C.; Cipolla, G.; Gatti, G.; Limido, G.L.; Sturm, Y.; Bernasconi, C.; Perucca, E. Induction of ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel metabolism by oxcarbazepine in healthy women. Epilepsia 1999, 40, 783-787.
84. Rosenfeld, W.E.; Doose, D.R.; Walker, S.A.; Nayak, R.K. Effect of topiramate on the pharmacokinetics of an oral contraceptive containing norethindrone and ethinyl estradiol in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 1997, 38, 317-323.
85. Doose, D.R.; Wang, S.S.; Padmanabhan, M.; Schwabe, S.; Jacobs, D.; Bialer, M. Effect of topiramate or carbamazepine on the pharmacokinetics of an oral contraceptive containing norethindrone and ethinyl estradiol in healthy obese and nonobese female subjects. Epilepsia 2003, 44, 540-549.
86. Lyseng-Williamson, K.A.; Yang, L.P. Topiramate: a review of its use in the treatment of epilepsy. Drugs 2007, 67, 2231-2256.
87. Glauser, T.; Kluger, G.; Sachdeo, R.; Krauss, G.; Perdomo, C.; Arroyo, S. Rufinamide for generalized seizures associated with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Neurology 2008, 70, 1950-1958.
88. Chiron, C. Stiripentol. Neurotherapeutics 2007, 4, 123-125.
89. Wong, S.L.; Cavanaugh, J.; Shi, H.; Awni, W.M.; Granneman, G. R. Effects of divalproex sodium on amitriptyline and nortriptyline pharmacokinetics. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1996, 60, 48-53.
90. Stephen, L.J. Drug treatment of epilepsy in elderly people: focus on valproic acid. Drugs Aging 2003, 20, 141-152.
91. Bourg, V.; Lebrun, C.; Chichmanian, R. M.; Thomas, P.; Frenay, M. Nitroso-urea-cisplatin-based chemotherapy associated with valproate: increase of haematologic toxicity. Ann. Oncol. 2001, 12, 217-219.
92. Bergendal, L.; Friberg, A.; Schaffrath, A.M.; Holmdahl, M.; Landahl, S. The clinical relevance of the interaction between carbamazepine and dextropropyphene in elderly patients in Gotheburg, Sweden. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1997, 53, 203-206.
93. Dam, M.; Kristensen, C.B.; Hansen, B.S.; Christiansen, J. Interaction between carbamazepine and propoxyphene in man. Acta Neurol. Scand. 1977, 56, 603-607.
94. Pauwels, O. Factors contributing to carbamazepine-macrolide interactions. Pharmacol. Res. 2002, 45, 291-298.
95. Kim, K.; Oh, S.; Park, P.; Park, J. Effect of probenecid on the pharmacokintics of carbamazepine in healthy subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2005, 61, 275-280.
96. Roby, C.A.; Anderson, G.D.; Kantor, E.; Dryer, D.A.; Burnstein, A.H. St. John's Wort on carbamazepine pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2000, 6, 451-457.
97. Zhou, S.; Chan, E.; Shen-Quan, P.; Huang, M.; Lee, E.J.D. Pharmacokinetic interactions of drugs with St. John's Wort. J. Psychopharmacol. 2004, 18, 262-276.
98. Johannessen Landmark, C.; Patsalos, P.N. Interactions between antiepileptic drugs and herbal medicines. BLACPMA 2008, 7, 116-126.
99. Kaiboriboon, K.; Guevara, M.; Alldredge, B.K. Understanding herb and dietary supplement use in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2009, 50, 1927-1932.
100. Christensen, J.; Petrenaite, V.; Atterman, J.; Sidenius, P.; Öhman, I.; Tomson, T.; Sabers, A. Oral contraceptives induce lamotrigine metabolism: evidence from a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Epilepsia 2007, 48, 484-489.
101. Sabers, A.; Öhman, I.; Christensen, J.; Tomson, T. Oral contraceptives reduce lamotrigine plasma levels. Neurology 2003, 61, 570-571.
102. Reimers, A.; Helde, G.; Brodtkorb, E. Ethinyl estradiol, not progestogens, reduces lamotrigine serum concentrations. Epilepsia 2005, 46, 1414-1417.
103. Ebert, U.; Thong, N.Q.; Oertel, R.; Kirch, W. Effects of rifampicin and cimetidine on pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of lamotrigine in healthy subjects. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2000, 56, 299-304.
104. Galimberti, C.A.; Mazzucchelli, I.; Arbasino, C.; Canevini, M.P.; Fattore, C.; Perucca, E. Increased apparent oral clearance of valproic acid during intake of combined contraceptive steroids in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia 2006, 47, 1569-1572.
105. Ishizaki, T.; Chiba, K.; Saito, M.; Kobayashi, K.; Iizuka, R. The effects of neuroleptics (haloperidol and chlorpromazine) on the pharmacokinetics of valproic acid in schizophrenic patients. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 1984, 4, 254-261.
106. Mori, H.; Takahashi, K.; Mizutani, T. Interaction between valproic acid and carbapenem antibiotics. Drug Metab. Rev. 2007, 39, 647-657.
107. Gidal, B.E.; Radulovic, L.L.; Kruger, S.; Rutecki, P.; Pitterle, M.; Bockbrader, H.N. Inter-and intra-subject variability in gabapentin absorption and absolute bioavailability. Epilepsy Res. 2000, 40, 123-127.
108. McLean, M.J. Gabapentin. Epilepsia 1995, 36(Suppl. 2), S73-86.
109. Adkins, J.C.; Noble, S. Tiagabine. A review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in the management of epilepsy. Drugs 1998, 55, 437-437.
110. Rivers, F.; O'Brien, T.J.; Callaghan, R. Exploring the possible interaction between anti-epilepsy drugs and multidrug efflux pumps; in vitro observations. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 598, 1-8.
111. Löscher, W.; Schmidt, D. Experimental and clinical evidence for loss of effect (tolerance) during prolonged treatment with antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia 2006, 47, 1253-1284.
112. Lazarowski, A.; Czornyj, L.; Lubienieki, F.; Girardi, E.; Vazquez, S.; D'Giano, C. ABC transporters during epilepsy and mechanisms underlying multidrug resistance in refractory epilepsy. Epilepsia 2007, 48(Suppl 5), 140-149. Erratum in: Epilepsia 2007, 48, 2380.
113. Luna-Tortós, C.; Fedrowitz, M.; Löscher, W. Several major antiepileptic drugs are substrates for human P-glycoprotein. Neuropharmacology 2008, 55, 1364-1375.
114. Szoeke, C.; Sills, G.J.; Kwan, P.; Petrovski, S.; Newton, M.; Hitiris, N.; Baum, L.; Berkovic, S.F.; Brodie, M.J.; Sheffield, L.J.; O'Brien, T.J. Multidrug-resistant genotype (ABCB1) and seizure recurrence in newly treated epilepsy: Data from International Pharmacogenetic Cohorts. Epilepsia 2009, [Epub ahead of print].
115. Pisani, F.; Oteri, G.; Russo, M.F.; Di Perri, R.; Perucca, E.; Richens, A. The efficacy of valproate-lamotrigine comedication in refractory complex partial seizures: evidence for a pharmacodynamic interaction. Epilepsia 1999, 40, 1141-1146.
116. Czuczwar, S.J.; Kaplanski, J.; Swiderska-Dziewit, G.; Gergont, A.; Kroczka, S.; Kacinski, M. Pharmacodynamic interactions between antiepileptic drugs: preclinical data based on isobolography. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2009, 5, 131-136.
117. Luszczki, J.J.; Andres, M.M.; Czuczwar, P.; Cioczek-Czuczwar, A.; Ratnaraj, N.; Patsalos, P.N.; Czuczwar, S.J. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic characterization of interactions between levetiracetam and numerous antiepileptic drugs in the mouse maximal electroshock seizure model: an isobolographic analysis. Epilepsia 2006, 47, 10-20.
118. Luszczki, J.J.; Andres-Mach, M.M.; Ratnaraj, N.; Patsalos, P.N.; Czuczwar, S.J. Levetiracetam and felbamate interact both pharmacodynamically and pharmacokinetically: an isobolographic analysis in the mouse maximal electroshock model. Epilepsia 2007, 48, 806-15.
119. Luszczki, J.J.; Ratnaraj, N.; Patsalos, P.N.; Czuczwar, S.J. Isobolographic and behavioral characterizations of interactions between vigabatrin and gabapentin in two experimental models of epilepsy. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 595, 13-21.
120. van Grootheest, K.; Olsson, S.; Couper, M.; de Jong-van den Berg, L. Pharmacists' role in reporting adverse drug reactions in an international perspective. Pharmacoepidemiol. Drug Saf. 2004, 13, 457-464.
121. van Grootheest, K.; van Puienbroek, E.P.; de Jong-van den Berg, L.T. Do pharmacists' reports of adverse drug reactions reflect patients' concerns? Pharm. World Sci. 2004, 26, 155-159.
122. Johannessen Landmark, C.; Johannessen, S.I. Modifications of antiepileptic drugs for improved tolerability and efficacy. Persp. Med. Chem. 2008, 2, 21-39.
123. Johannessen Landmark, C.; Johannessen, S.I. Pharmacological management of epilepsy: recent advances and future prospects. Drugs 2008, 68, 1925-1939.
124. French, J. A.; Faught, E. Rational polytherapy. Epilepsia 2009, 50(Suppl. 8), 63-68.