Microbial antigenic pressure and evolution of the immune response: Toward a better understanding of the human immune system in health and disease and therapeutic interventions

Endocrine, Metabolic and Immune Disorders - Drug Targets

Volumn 10, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 190-203

  Magrone, Thea ^a   Jirillo, Emilio ^a  

^a POLICLINICO   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antigens; Drug design; Endotoxins; Fish; Germinal centers; Lymphoid tissue; Phylogenesis; Toll like receptors

Indexed keywords

B LYMPHOCYTE ANTIGEN; BETA GLUCAN; CD14 ANTIGEN; CD44V ANTIGEN; CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR CXCR5; ENDOTHELIAL LEUKOCYTE ADHESION MOLECULE 1; ENDOTOXIN; I KAPPA B; IMMUNOGLOBULIN A; INTERLEUKIN 15; INTERLEUKIN 21; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 7; LYMPHOTOXIN; OSTEOCLAST DIFFERENTIATION FACTOR; P SELECTIN GLYCOPROTEIN LIGAND 1; POLYPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; PROTEIN KINASE C; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 4; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR ADAPTOR MOLECULE 1; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; VASCULAR CELL ADHESION MOLECULE 1; VERY LATE ACTIVATION ANTIGEN;

ADENOID; ANTIBODY PRODUCING CELL; ANTIGEN ANTIBODY COMPLEX; ANTIGENICITY; ARTICLE; BONE MARROW; BRONCHUS ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE; CARCINOGENESIS; CD4+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CELL ACTIVITY; CELL ADHESION; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; CELL GROWTH; CELL PROLIFERATION; CELL SURVIVAL; DRUG DESIGN; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; EVOLUTION; FETUS LIVER; FIBROBLASTIC RETICULAR CELL; GERMINAL CENTER; HELPER CELL; HOST RESISTANCE; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INTESTINAL LYMPHOID FOLLICLE; INTESTINE LYMPHATIC TISSUE; LEUKOCYTE; LYMPH NODE; LYMPHOCYTE; LYMPHOID ORGAN; MAMMAL CELL; MEMORY CELL; MICROBIAL ANTIGENIC PRESSURE; MUCOSAL ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE; NASAL ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE; NONHUMAN; ORGANOGENESIS; PEYER PATCH; PHYLOGENY; PLASMA CELL; SALMON; STROMA CELL; THYMUS; TONSIL; ZEBRA FISH;

EID: 78549242649     PISSN: 18715303     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/187153010791936829     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. Tedder, T.F. (2010) Innate and adaptive receptors interact to balance humoral immunity. J. Immunol., 184(5), 2231-2232.
2. Nielsen, C. (2008) Six major steps in animal evolution: are we derived sponge larvae? Evol. Dev., 10(2), 241-257.
3. Adlerberth, I. (2008) Factors influencing the establishment of the intestinal microbiota in infancy. Nestle Nutr. Workshop Ser. Pediatr. Prog., 62, 13-29.
4. Salonen, A.; Palva, A. and de Vos, W.M. (2009) Microbial func- tionality in the human intestinal tract. Front. Biosci., 14, 3074-3084.
5. Holzman, D. (2009) Salmonella depend on chemotaxis, photosyn- thesis to invade lettuce. Microbe, 4(12), 542-543.
6. Nürnberger, T.; Brunner, F.; Kemmerling, B. and Piater, L. (2004) Innate immunity in plants and animals: striking similarities and obvious differences. Immunol. Rev.,198, 249-266.
7. Neish, A.S. (2009) Microbes in gastrointestinal health and disease. Gastroenterology, 136(1), 65-80.
8. Hasegawa, M.; Osaka, T.; Tawaratsumida, K.; Yamazaki, T.; Tada, H.; Chen, G.Y.; Tsuneda, S.; Núñez, G. and Inohara, N. (2010) Transitions in oral and intestinal microflora composition and innate immune receptor-dependent stimulation during mouse develop- ment. Infect. Immun., 78(2), 639-650.
9. Leser, T.D. and Mølbak, L. (2009) Better living through microbial action: the benefits of the mammalian gastrointestinal microbiota on the host. Environ. Microbiol., 11(9), 2194-2206.
10. Evershed, R.P.; Payne, S.; Sherratt, A.G.; Copley, M.S.; Coolidge, J.; Urem-Kotsu, D.; Kotsakis, K.; Ozdoǧan, M.; Ozdoǧan, A.E.; Nieuwenhuyse, O.; Akkermans, P.M.; Bailey, D.; Andeescu, R.R.; Campbell, S.; Farid, S.; Hodder, I.; Yalman, N.; Ozba aran, M.; Biçakci, E.; Garfinkel, Y.; Levy, T. and Burton, M.M. (2008) Ear- liest date for milk use in the Near East and southeastern Europe linked to cattle herding. Nature, 455(7212), 528-531.
11. Schaub, B.; Lauener, R. and von Mutius, E. (2006) The many faces of the hygiene hypothesis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 117(5), 969- 977.
12. Osada, Y. and Kanazawa, T. (2010) Parasitic helminths: new weapons against immunological disorders. J. Biomed. Biotechnol., 2010, 743-758.
13. Raz, E. (2010) Mucosal immunity: aliment and ailments. Mucosal. Immunol., 3(1), 4-7.
14. Caradonna, L.; Amati, L.; Magrone, T.; Pellegrino, N.M.; Jirillo, E. and Caccavo, D. (2000) Enteric bacteria, lipopolysaccharides and [35] related cytokines in inflammatory bowel disease: biological and clinical significance. J. Endotoxin. Res., 6(3), 205-214.
15. Dixon, B. (2010) Can hookworm help humans? Microbe, 5(1), 2-3.
16. Diemert, D.J.; Bethony, J.M. and Hotez, P.J. (2008) Hookworm vaccines. Clin. Infect. Dis., 46(2), 282-288.
17. Magrone, T. and Jirillo, E. (2009) The cytokine-mediated network in health and disease with special reference to the gut immune system regulation. Modulation of cytokine functions by nutraceuticals. Ligand Assay, 14(4), 350-358.
18. Chen, Z. and O'Shea, J.J. (2008) Th17 cells: a new fate for differ- entiating helper T cells. Immunol. Res., 41(2), 87-102.
19. Wing, K. and Sakaguchi, S. (2010) Regulatory T cells exert checks and balances on self tolerance and autoimmunity. Nat. Immu- nol.,11(1), 7-13.
20. Lloyd, C.M. and Hawrylowicz, C.M. (2009) Regulatory T cells in asthma. Immunity, 31(3), 438-449.
21. Drayton, D.L.; Liao, S.; Mounzer, R.H. and Ruddle, N.H. (2006) Lymphoid organ development: from ontogeny to neogenesis. Nat. Immunol., 7(4), 344-353.
22. Kanamori, Y.; Ishimaru, K.; Nanno, M.; Maki, K.; Ikuta, K.; Nariuchi, H. and Ishikawa, H. (1996) Identification of novel lymphoid tissues in murine intestinal mucosa where clusters of c-kit+ IL-7R+ Thy1+ lympho-hemopoietic progenitors develop. J. Exp. Med., 184(4), 1449-1459.
23. Eberl, G. and Sawa, S. (2010) Opening the crypt: current facts and hypotheses on the function of cryptopatches. Trends Immunol., 31(2), 50-55.
24. Harmsen, A.; Kusser, K.; Hartson, L.; Tighe, M.; Sunshine, M.J.; Sedgwick, J.D.; Choi, Y.; Littman, D.R. and Randall, T.D. (2002) Cutting edge: organogenesis of nasal-associated lymphoid tissue (NALT) occurs independently of lymphotoxin-alpha (LT alpha) and retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor-gamma, but the organization of NALT is LT alpha dependent. J. Immunol., 168(3), 986-990.
25. Alimzhanov, M.B.; Kuprash, D.V.; Kosco-Vilbois, M.H.; Luz, A.; Turetskaya, R.L.; Tarakhovsky, A.; Rajewsky, K.; Nedospasov, S.A. and Pfeffer, K. (1997) Abnormal development of secondary lymphoid tissues in lymphotoxin beta-deficient mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 94(17), 9302-9307.
26. Mebius, R.E. and Kraal, G. (2005) Structure and function of the spleen. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 5(8), 606-616.
27. Kuprash, D.V.; Tumanov, A.V.; Liepinsh, D.J.; Koroleva, E.P.; Drutskaya, M.S.; Kruglov, A.A.; Shakhov, A.N.; Southon, E.; Murphy, W.J.; Tessarollo, L.; Grivennikov, S.I. and Nedospasov, S.A. (2005) Novel tumor necrosis factor-knockout mice that lack Peyer's patches. Eur. J. Immunol., 35(5), 1592-1600.
28. Lorenz, R.G.; Chaplin, D.D.; McDonald, K.G.; McDonough, J.S. and Newberry, R.D. (2003) Isolated lymphoid follicle formation is inducible and dependent upon lymphotoxin-sufficient B lympho- cytes, lymphotoxin beta receptor, and TNF receptor I function. J. Immunol., 170(11), 5475-5482.
29. Kim, D.; Mebius, R.E.; MacMicking, J.D.; Jung, S.; Cupedo, T.; Castellanos, Y.; Rho, J.; Wong, B.R.; Josien, R.; Kim, N.; Rennert, P.D. and Choi, Y. (2000) Regulation of peripheral lymph node genesis by the tumor necrosis factor family member TRANCE. J. Exp. Med., 192(10), 1467-1478.
30. Kong, Y.Y.; Yoshida, H.; Sarosi, I.; Tan, H.L.; Timms, E.; Capparelli, C.; Morony, S.; Oliveira-dos-Santos, A.J.; Van, G.; Itie, A.; Khoo, W.; Wakeham, A.; Dunstan, C.R. Lacey, D.L.; Mak, T.W.; Boyle, W.J. and Penninger, J.M. (1999) OPGL is a key regu- lator of osteoclastogenesis, lymphocyte development and lymph-node organogenesis. Nature, 397(6717), 315-323.
31. Adachi, S.; Yoshida, H.; Honda, K.; Maki, K.; Saijo, K.; Ikuta, K.; Saito, T. and Nishikawa, S.I. (1998) Essential role of IL-7 receptor alpha in the formation of Peyer's patch anlage. Int. Immunol.,10(1), 1-6.
32. Eberl, G. and Littman, D.R. (2003) The role of the nuclear hor- mone receptor RORgammat in the development of lymph nodes and Peyer's patches. Immunol. Rev., 195, 81-90.
33. Klinman, N.R. (1997) The cellular origins of memory B cells. Semin. Immunol., 9(4), 241-247.
34. Weill, J.C.; Bertocci, B.; Faili, A.; Aoufouchi, S.; Frey, S.; De Smet, A.; Storck, S.; Dahan, A.; Delbos, F.; Weller, S.; Flatter, E. and Reynaud, C.A. (2002) Ig gene hypermutation: a mechanism is due. Adv. Immunol., 80, 183-202.
35. Franklin, A. and Blanden, R.V. (2008) The strand bias paradox of somatic hypermutation at immunoglobulin loci. Trends Immunol., 29(4), 167-172.
36. Klaus, G.G.; Humphrey, J.H.; Kunkl, A. and Dongworth, D.W. (1980) The follicular dendritic cell: its role in antigen presentation in the generation of immunological memory. Immunol. Rev., 53, 3-28.
37. Qin, D.; Wu, J.; Vora, K.A.; Ravetch, J.V.; Szakal, A.K.; Manser, T. and Tew, J.G. (2000) Fc gamma receptor IIB on follicular dendritic cells regulates the B cell recall response. J. Immunol., 164(12), 6268-6275.
38. Meyer-Hermann, M.; Figge, M.T. and Toellner, K.M. (2009) Ger- minal centers seen through the mathematical eye: B-cell models on the catwalk. Trends Immunol., 30(4),157-164.
39. Wittenbrink, N.; Weber, T.S.; Klein, A.; Weiser, A.A.; Zuschratter, W.; Sibila, M.; Schuchhardt, J. and Or-Guil, M. (2010) Broad vol- ume distributions indicate nonsynchronized growth and suggest sudden collapses of germinal center B cell populations. J. Immunol., 184(3), 1339-1347.
40. Pulendran, B.; van Driel, R. and Nossal, G.J. (1997) Immunologi- cal tolerance in germinal centers. Immunol. Today, 8(1), 27-32.
41. Hannum, L.G.; Haberman, A.M.; Anderson, S.M. and Shlomchik, M.J. (2000) Germinal center initiation, variable gene region hy- permutation, and mutant B cell selection without detectable im- mune complexes on follicular dendritic cells. J. Exp. Med., 192(7), 931-942.
42. Manser, T. (2004) Textbook germinal centers? J. Immunol., 172(6), 3369-3375.
43. Lentz, V.M. and Manser, T. (2001) Cutting edge: germinal centers can be induced in the absence of T cells. J. Immunol., 167(1), 15- 20.
44. Kim, C.H.; Rott, L.S.; Clark-Lewis, I.; Campbell, D.J.; Wu, L. and Butcher, E.C. (2001) Subspecialization of CXCR5+ T cells: B helper activity is focused in a germinal center-localized subset of CXCR5+ T cells. J. Exp. Med., 193(12), 1373-1381.
45. Zheng, B.; Xue, W. and Kelsoe, G. (1994) Locus-specific somatic hypermutation in germinal centre T cells. Nature, 372(6506), 556- 559.
46. Rau, F.C.; Dieter, J.; Luo, Z.; Priest, S.O. and Baumgarth, N. (2009) B7-1/2 (CD80/CD86) direct signaling to B cells enhances IgG secretion. J. Immunol., 183(12), 7661-7671.
47. Diaz, M. and Flajnik, M.F. (1998) Evolution of somatic hypermuta- tion and gene conversion in adaptive immunity. Immunol. Rev., 162, 13-24.
48. Zwollo, P.; Cole, S.; Bromage, E. and Kaattari, S. (2005) B cell heterogeneity in the teleost kidney: evidence for a maturation gradient from anterior to posterior kidney. J. Immunol., 174(11), 6608-6616.
49. Nahm, M.H.; Kroese, F.G. and Hoffmann, J.W. (1992) The evolution of immune memory and germinal centers. Immunol. Today., 13(11), 438-441.
50. Hande, S.; Notidis, E. and Manser, T. (1998) Bcl-2 obstructs negative selection of autoreactive, hypermutated antibody V regions during memory B cell development. Immunity, 8(2), 189-198.
51. Medzhitov, R. and Janeway, C.A.Jr. (1998) Innate immune recog- nition and control of adaptive immune responses. Semin. Immunol., 10(5), 351-353.
52. Conley, M.E. and Burrows, P.D. (2010) Plugging the leaky pre-B cell receptor. J. Immunol., 184(3), 1127-1129.
53. Spolski, R. and Leonard, W.J. (2010) IL-21 and T follicular helper cells. Int. Immunol., 22(1), 7-12.
54. Lee, J.W.; Epardaud, M.; Sun, J.; Becker, J.E.; Cheng, A.C.; Yonekura, A.R.; Heath, J.K. and Turley, S.J. (2007) Peripheral an- tigen display by lymph node stroma promotes T cell tolerance to intestinal self. Nat. Immunol., 8(2), 181-190.
55. Molenaar, R.; Greuter, M.; van der Marel, A.P.; Roozendaal, R.; Martin, S.F.; Edele, F.; Huehn, J.; Förster, R.; O'Toole, T.; Jansen, W.; Eestermans, I.L.; Kraal, G. and Mebius, R.E. (2009) Lymph node stromal cells support dendritic cell-induced gut-homing of T cells. J. Immunol., 183(10), 6395-6402.
56. Balogh, P.; Fisi, V.; Szakal, A.K. (2008) Fibroblastic reticular cells of the peripheral lymphoid organs: unique features of a ubiquitous cell type. Mol. Immunol., 46(1), 1-7.
57. Sixt, M.; Kanazawa, N.; Selg, M.; Samson, T.; Roos, G.; Reinhardt, D.P.; Pabst, R.; Lutz, M.B. and Sorokin, L. (2005) The conduit system transports soluble antigens from the afferent lymph to resident dendritic cells in the T cell area of the lymph node. Immunity, 22(1), 19-29.
58. Buettner, M.; Pabst, R. and Bode, U. (2010) Stromal cell heteroge- neity in lymphoid organs. Trends Immunol., 31(2), 80-86.
59. Kanemitsu, N.; Ebisuno, Y.; Tanaka, T.; Otani, K.; Hayasaka, H.; Kaisho, T.; Akira, S.; Katagiri, K.; Kinashi, T.; Fujita, N.; Tsuruo, T. and Miyasaka, M. (2005) CXCL13 is an arrest chemokine for B cells in high endothelial venules. Blood, 106(8), 2613-2618.
60. Gorelik, L.; Gilbride, K.; Dobles, M.; Kalled, S.L.; Zandman, D. and Scott, M.L. (2003) Normal B cell homeostasis requires B cell activation factor production by radiation-resistant cells. J. Exp. Med., 198(6), 937-945.
61. Yoon, S.O.; Zhang, X.; Berner, P.; Blom, B. and Choi, Y.S. (2009) Notch ligands expressed by follicular dendritic cells protect germi- nal center B cells from apoptosis. J. Immunol., 183(1), 352-358.
62. Wu, Y.; Sukumar, S.; El Shikh, M.E.; Best, A.M.; Szakal, A.K. and Tew, J.G. (2008) Immune complex-bearing follicular dendritic cells deliver a late antigenic signal that promotes somatic hypermu- tation. J. Immunol., 180(1), 281-90.
63. Boles, K.S.; Vermi, W.; Facchetti, F.; Fuchs, A.; Wilson, T.J.; Diacovo, T.G.; Cella, M. and Colonna, M. (2009) A novel molecu- lar interaction for the adhesion of follicular CD4 T cells to follicu- lar DC. Eur. J. Immunol., 39(3), 695-703.
64. Kelly, M.; Hwang, J.M. and Kubes, P. (2007) Modulating leuko- cyte recruitment in inflammation. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 120(1), 3-10.
65. Petri, B. and Bixel, M.G. (2006) Molecular events during leukocyte diapedesis. FEBS J., 273(19), 4399-4407.
66. Wegmann, F.; Petri, B.; Khandoga, A.G.; Moser, C.; Khandoga, A.; Volkery, S.; Li, H.; Nasdala, I.; Brandau, O.; Fässler, R.; Butz, S.; Krombach, F. and Vestweber, D. (2006) ESAM supports neu- trophil extravasation, activation of Rho, and VEGF-induced vascu- lar permeability. J. Exp. Med., 203(7), 1671-1677.
67. Yang, L.; Froio, R.M.; Sciuto, T.E.; Dvorak, A.M.; Alon, R. and Luscinskas, F.W. (2005) ICAM-1 regulates neutrophil adhesion and transcellular migration of TNF-alpha-activated vascular endo- thelium under flow. Blood, 106(2), 584-592.
68. Carman, C.V. and Springer, T.A. (2004) A transmigratory cup in leukocyte diapedesis both through individual vascular endothelial cells and between them. J. Cell. Biol., 167(2), 377-388.
69. Phillipson, M.; Kaur, J.; Colarusso, P.; Ballantyne, C.M. and Kubes, P. (2008) Endothelial domes encapsulate adherent neutro- phils and minimize increases in vascular permeability in paracellu- lar and transcellular emigration. PLoS One, 3(2), e1649.
70. Carman, C.V.; Sage, P.T.; Sciuto, T.E.; de la Fuente, M.A.; Geha, R.S.; Ochs, H.D.; Dvorak, H.F.; Dvorak, A.M. and Springer, T.A. (2007) Transcellular diapedesis is initiated by invasive podosomes. Immunity, 26(6), 784-797.
71. Wang, S.; Voisin, M.B.; Larbi, K.Y.; Dangerfield, J.; Scheiermann, C.; Tran, M.; Maxwell, P.H.; Sorokin, L. and Nourshargh, S. (2006) Venular basement membranes contain specific matrix pro- tein low expression regions that act as exit points for emigrating neutrophils. J. Exp. Med., 203(6), 1519-1532.
72. Carvalho-Tavares, J.; Hickey, M.J.; Hutchison, J.; Michaud, J.; Sutcliffe, I.T. and Kubes, P. (2000) A role for platelets and endo- thelial selectins in tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced leukocyte recruitment in the brain microvasculature. Circ. Res., 87(12), 1141- 1148.
73. Sano, H.; Nakagawa, N.; Chiba, R.; Kurasawa, K.; Saito, Y. and Iwamoto, I. (1998) Cross-linking of intercellular adhesion mole- cule-1 induces interleukin-8 and RANTES production through the activation of MAP kinases in human vascular endothelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 250(3), 694-698.
74. Ko, Y.C.; Chien, H.F.; Jiang-Shieh, Y.F.; Chang, C.Y.; Pai, M.H.; Huang, J.P.; Chen, H.M. and Wu, C.H. (2009) Endothelial CD200 is heterogeneously distributed, regulated and involved in immune cell-endothelium interactions. J Anat., 214(1), 183-195.
75. Carlow, D.A.; Gossens, K.; Naus, S.; Veerman, K.M.; Seo, W. and Ziltener, H.J. (2009) PSGL-1 function in immunity and steady state homeostasis. Immunol. Rev., 230(1), 75-96.
76. Johnson, P. and Ruffell, B. (2009) CD44 and its role in inflamma- tion and inflammatory diseases. Inflamm. Allergy Drug Targets, 8(3), 208-220.
77. Wang, S.H.; Nan. K.J. and Wang, Y.C. (2009) Endothelial cells promote the proliferation of lymphocytes partly through the Wnt pathway via LEF-1. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 388(1), 67-72.
78. Hemmrich, G.; Miller, D.J. and Bosch, T.C. (2007) The evolution of immunity: a low-life perspective. Trends Immunol., 28(10), 449- 454.
79. Sabin, L.R.; Hanna, S.L. and Cherry, S. (2010) Innate antiviral immunity in Drosophila. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 22(1), 4-9.
80. Hultmark, D. (2003) Drosophila immunity: paths and patterns. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 15(1), 12-19.
81. Luo, C. and Zheng, L. (2000) Independent evolution of Toll and related genes in insects and mammals. Immunogenetics, 51(2), 92- 98.
82. Imler, J.L. and Hoffmann, J.A. (2001) Toll receptors in innate im- munity. Trends Cell. Biol., 11(7), 304-311.
83. Imler, J.L. and Zheng, L. (2004) Biology of Toll receptors: lessons from insects and mammals. J. Leukoc. Biol., 75(1), 18-26.
84. Parker, J.S.; Mizuguchi, K. and Gay, N.J. (2001) A family of pro- teins related to Spätzle, the toll receptor ligand, are encoded in the Drosophila genome. Proteins, 45(1), 71-80.
85. Weber, A.N.; Tauszig-Delamasure, S.; Hoffmann, J.A.; Lelièvre, E.; Gascan, H.; Ray, K.P.; Morse, M.A.; Imler, J.L. and Gay, N.J. (2003) Binding of the Drosophila cytokine Spätzle to Toll is direct and establishes signaling. Nat Immunol., 4(8), 794-800.
86. Medzhitov, R.; Preston-Hurlburt, P. and Janeway, C.A. Jr. (1997) A human homologue of the Drosophila Toll protein signals activa- tion of adaptive immunity. Nature, 388(6640), 394-397.
87. Mathison, J.C.; Tobias, P.S.; Wolfson, E. and Ulevitch, R.J. (1992) Plasma lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein. A key compo- nent in macrophage recognition of gram-negative LPS. J. Immu- nol., 149(1), 200-206.
88. Akashi, S.; Saitoh, S.; Wakabayashi, Y.; Kikuchi, T.; Takamura, N.; Nagai, Y.; Kusumoto, Y.; Fukase, K.; Kusumoto, S.; Adachi, Y.; Kosugi, A. and Miyake, K. (2003) Lipopolysaccharide interac- tion with cell surface Toll-like receptor 4-MD-2: higher affinity than that with MD-2 or CD14. J. Exp. Med., 198(7), 1035-1042.
89. Guha, M. and Mackman N. (2001) LPS induction of gene expres- sion in human monocytes. Cell Signal., 13(2), 85-94.
90. Berczi, I.; Bertók, L. and Bereznai, T. (1966) Comparative studies on the toxicity of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide endotoxin in various animal species. Can. J. Microbiol., 12(5), 1070-1071.
91. Iliev, D.B.; Liarte, C.Q.; MacKenzie, S. and Goetz, F.W. (2005) Activation of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) mononuclear phagocytes by different pathogen associated molecular pattern (PAMP) bearing agents. Mol. Immunol., 42(10), 1215-1223.
92. Inagawa, H.; Honda, T.; Kohchi, C.; Nishizawa, T.; Yoshiura, Y.; Nakanishi, T.; Yokomizo, Y. and Soma, G. (2002) Cloning and characterization of the homolog of mammalian lipopolysaccharide- binding protein and bactericidal permeability-increasing protein in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. J. Immunol.,168(11), 5638- 5644.
93. Stenvik, J.; Solstad, T.; Strand, C.; Leiros, I. and Jørgensen, T.T.Ø. (2004) Cloning and analyses of a BPI/LBP cDNA of the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). Dev. Comp. Immunol., 28(4), 307-323.
94. Iliev, D.B.; Roach, J.C.; Mackenzie, S.; Planas, J.V. and Goetz, F.W. (2005) Endotoxin recognition: in fish or not in fish? FEBS Lett., 579(29), 6519-6528.
95. Yamamoto, M.; Sato, S.; Hemmi, H.; Uematsu, S.; Hoshino, K.; Kaisho, T.; Takeuchi, O.; Takeda, K. and Akira, S. (2003) TRAM is specifically involved in the Toll-like receptor 4-mediated MyD88-independent signaling pathway. Nat. Immunol., 4(11), 1144-1150.
96. Meijer, A.H.; Gabby Krens, S.F.; Medina Rodriguez, I.A.; He, S.; Bitter, W.; Ewa Snaar-Jagalska, B. and Spaink, H.P. (2004) Ex- pression analysis of the Toll-like receptor and TIR domain adaptor families of zebrafish. Mol Immunol., 40(11), 773-783.
97. Sepulcre, M.P.; Alcaraz-Pérez, F.; López-Muñoz, A.; Roca, F.J.; Meseguer, J.; Cayuela, M.L. and Mulero, V. (2009) Evolution of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) recognition and signaling: fish TLR4 does not recognize LPS and negatively regulates NF-kappaB acti- vation. J. Immunol., 182(4), 1836-1845.
98. Tsuneyoshi, N.; Fukudome, K.; Kohara, J.; Tomimasu, R.; Gauchat, J.F.; Nakatake, H. and Kimoto, M. (2005) The functional and structural properties of MD-2 required for lipopolysaccharide binding are absent in MD-1. J. Immunol., 174(1), 340-344.
99. Farnell, M.B.; Crippen, T.L.; He, H.; Swaggerty, C.L. and Kogut, M.H. (2003) Oxidative burst mediated by toll like receptors (TLR) and CD14 on avian heterophils stimulated with bacterial toll agonists. Dev. Comp. Immunol., 27(5), 423-429.
100. Triantafilou, K.; Triantafilou, M. and Dedrick, R.L. (2001) A CD14-independent LPS receptor cluster. Nat. Immunol., 2(4), 338-345.
101. Triantafilou, M. and Triantafilou, K. (2005) The dynamics of LPS recognition: complex orchestration of multiple receptors. J. Endo toxin. Res., 11(1), 5-11.
102. Roach, J.C.; Glusman, G.; Rowen, L.; Kaur, A.; Purcell, M.K.; Smith, K.D.; Hood, L.E. and Aderem, A. (2005) The evolution of vertebrate Toll-like receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 102(27), 9577-9582.
103. Ribeiro, C.M.; Hermsen, T.; Taverne-Thiele, A.J.; Savelkoul, H.F. and Wiegertjes, G.F. (2010) Evolution of recognition of ligands from Gram-positive bacteria: similarities and differences in the TLR2-mediated response between mammalian vertebrates and teleost fish. J. Immunol., 184(5), 2355-2368.
104. Matsuzawa, A.; Saegusa, K.; Noguchi, T.; Sadamitsu, C.; Nishitoh, H.; Nagai, S.; Koyasu, S.; Matsumoto, K.; Takeda, K. and Ichijo, H. (2005) ROS-dependent activation of the TRAF6-ASK1- p38 pathway is selectively required for TLR4-mediated innate immunity. Nat. Immunol., 6(6), 587-592.
105. Yang, C.S.; Shin, D.M.; Lee, H.M.; Son, J.W.; Lee, S.J.; Akira, S.; Gougerot-Pocidalo, M.A.; El-Benna, J.; Ichijo, H. and Jo, E.K. (2008) ASK1-p38 MAPK-p47phox activation is essential for in- flammatory responses during tuberculosis via TLR2-ROS signalling. Cell. Microbiol., 10(3), 741-754.
106. Martinon, F.; Mayor, A. and Tschopp, J. (2009) The inflammasomes: guardians of the body. Annu. Rev. Immunol., 27, 229-265.
107. Ting, J.P.; Kastner, D.L. and Hoffman, H.M. (2006) CATERPILLERs, pyrin and hereditary immunological disorders. Nat. Rev. Im- munol., 6(3), 183-195.
108. Muruve, D.A.; Pétrilli, V.; Zaiss, A.K.; White, L.R.; Clark, S.A.; Ross, P.J.; Parks, R.J. and Tschopp, J. (2008) The inflammasome recognizes cytosolic microbial and host DNA and triggers an innate immune response. Nature, 452(7183), 103-107.
109. Jha, S. and Ting, J.P. (2009) Inflammasome-associated nucleotide- binding domain, leucine-rich repeat proteins and inflammatory dis- eases. J. Immunol., 183(12), 7623-7629.
110. Ogura, Y.; Sutterwala, F.S. and Flavell, R.A. (2006) The inflam- masome: first line of the immune response to cell stress. Cell, 126(4), 659-662.
111. Mariathasan, S.; Weiss, D.S.; Newton, K.; McBride, J.; O'Rourke, K.; Roose-Girma, M.; Lee, W.P.; Weinrauch, Y.; Monack, D.M. and Dixit, V.M. (2006) Cryopyrin activates the inflammasome in response to toxins and ATP. Nature, 440(7081), 228-232.
112. Masters, S.L.; Lobito, A.A.; Chae, J. and Kastner, D.L. (2006) Recent advances in the molecular pathogenesis of hereditary recurrent fevers. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 6(6), 428-433.
113. Gattorno, M.; Tassi, S.; Carta, S.; Delfino, L.; Ferlito, F.; Pelagatti, M.A.; D'Osualdo, A.; Buoncompagni, A.; Alpigiani, M.G.; Alessio, M.; Martini, A. and Rubartelli, A. (2007) Pattern of interleukin-1beta secretion in response to lipopolysaccharide and ATP before and after interleukin-1 blockade in patients with CIAS1 mutations. Arthritis Rheum., 56(9), 3138-3148.
114. Tossi, A. and Sandri, L. (2002) Molecular diversity in gene encoded, cationic antimicrobial polypeptides. Curr. Pharm. Des., 8(9), 743-761.
115. Oren, Z. and Shai, Y. (1998) Mode of action of linear amphipathic alpha-helical antimicrobial peptides. Biopolymers, 47(6), 451-463.
116. Ayabe, T.; Satchell, D.P.; Wilson, C.L.; Parks, W.C.; Selsted, M.E. and Ouellette, A.J. (2000) Secretion of microbicidal alpha- defensins by intestinal Paneth cells in response to bacteria. Nat. Immunol., 1(2), 113-118.
117. Fallon, P.G.; Allen, R.L. and Rich, T. (2001) Primitive Toll signalling: bugs, flies, worms and man. Trends Immunol., 22(2), 63-66.
118. Fraune, S.; Augustin, R. and Bosh, T.C.G. (2009) Exploring host- microbe interactions in hydra. Microbe, 10(4), 457-462.
119. Muta, T. and Iwanaga, S. (1996) The role of hemolymph coagula- tion in innate immunity. Curr. Opin. Immunol., 8(1), 41-47.
120. Mitta, G.; Vandenbulcke, F.; Hubert, F.; Salzet, M. and Roch, P. (2000) Involvement of mytilins in mussel antimicrobial defense. J. Biol. Chem., 275(17), 12954-12962.
121. Vouille, V.; Amiche, M. and Nicolas, P. (1997) Structure of genes for dermaseptins B, antimicrobial peptides from frog skin. Exon 1- encoded prepropeptide is conserved in genes for peptides of highly different structures and activities. FEBS Lett., 414(1), 27-32.
122. Uzzell, T.; Stolzenberg, E.D.; Shinnar, A.E. and Zasloff, M. (2003) Hagfish intestinal antimicrobial peptides are ancient cathelicidins. Peptides, 24(11), 1655-1667.
123. Chang, C.I.; Pleguezuelos, O.; Zhang, Y.A.; Zou, J. and Secombes, C.J. (2005) Identification of a novel cathelicidin gene in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Infect. Immun., 73(8), 5053-5064.
124. Schikorski, D.; Cuvillier-Hot, V.; Boidin-Wichlacz, C.; Slomianny, C.; Salzet, M. and Tasiemski, A. (2009) Deciphering the immune function and regulation by a TLR of the cytokine EMAPII in the lesioned central nervous system using a leech model. J. Immunol., 183(11), 7119-7128.
125. Lai, Y. and Gallo, R.L. (2009) AMPed up immunity: how antimi- crobial peptides have multiple roles in immune defense. Trends Immunol., 30(3), 131-141.
126. Amati, L.; Leogrande, D.; Passeri, M.E.; Mastronardi, M.L.; Passantino, L.; Venezia, P. and Jirillo, E. (2005) β-glucans: old molecules with newly discovered immunological activities. Drug Design Rev. Online, 2(3) 251-258.
127. Paulsen, S.M.; Lunde, H.; Engstad, R.E. and Robertsen, B. (2003) In vivo effects of beta-glucan and LPS on regulation of lysozyme activity and mRNA expression in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Fish Shellfish Immunol., 14(1), 39-54.
128. Yepiz-Plascencia, G.; Galván, T.G.; Vargas-Albores, F. and García-Bañuelos, M. (2000) Synthesis of hemolymph high-density lipoprotein beta-glucan binding protein by Penaeus vannamei Shrimp hepatopancreas. Mar. Biotechnol. (NY), 2(5), 485-492.
129. Suphantharika, M.; Khunrae, P.; Thanardkit, P. and Verduyn, C. (2003) Preparation of spent brewer's yeast beta-glucans with a po- tential application as an immunostimulant for black tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon. Bioresour. Technol., 88(1), 55-60.
130. Ringo, E.; Lodemel, J.B.; Myklebust, R.; Jensen, L.; Lund, V.; Mayhew T. and Olsen, R.E. (2002) The effects of soybeans, linseed and marine oils on aerobic gut microbiota of artic charr (Salvelinus alpines L). before and after challenge with Aeromonas salmonicida ssp. salmonicida. Aquaculture Res., 33, 591-606.
131. Vervarcke, S.; Ollevier, F.; Kinget, R. and Michoel, A. (2005) Mu- cosal response in African catfish after administration of Vibrio an- guillarum O2 antigens via different routes. Fish Shellfish Immunol., 18(2), 125-133.
132. Koppang, E.O.; Fischer, U.; Satoh, M. and Jirillo, E. (2007) In- flammation in fish as seen from a morphological point of view with special reference to the vascular compartment. Curr. Pharm. Des., 13(36), 3649-3655.
133. Koppang, E.O.; Bjerkås, I.; Haugarvoll, E.; Chan, E.K.; Szabo, N.J.; Ono, N.; Akikusa, B.; Jirillo, E.; Poppe, T.T.; Sveier, H.; Tørud, B. and Satoh, M. (2008) Vaccination-induced systemic autoimmunity in farmed Atlantic salmon. J. Immunol., 181(7), 4807-4814.
134. Fuglem, B.; Jirillo, E.; Bjerkås, I.; Kiyono, H.; Nochi, T.; Yuki, Y.; Raida, M.; Fischer, U. and Koppang, E.O. (2010) Antigen- sampling cells in the salmonid intestinal epithelium. Dev. Comp. Immunol., 34(7), 768-774.
135. Quentel, C. and Vigneulle, M. (1997) Antigen uptake and immune responses after oral vaccination. Dev. Biol. Stand., 90, 69-78.
136. King, A. (2009) Researchers find their Nemo. Cell, 139(5), 843-846.
137. Kulkeaw, K.; Ishitani, T.; Kanemaru, T.; Fucharoen, S. and Sugiyama, D. (2010) Cold exposure down-regulates zebrafish hematopoiesis. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun.,[Epub ahead of print].
138. Chen, A.T. and Zon, L.I. (2009) Zebrafish blood stem cells. J. Cell. Biochem., 108(1), 35-42.
139. De Souza, A.G.; MacCormack, T.J.; Wang, N.; Li, L. and Goss, G.G. (2009) Large-scale proteome profile of the zebrafish (Danio rerio) gill for physiological and biomarker discovery studies. Zebrafish, 6(3), 229-238.
140. Phelps, H.A.; Runft, D.L. and Neely, M.N. (2009) Adult zebrafish model of streptococcal infection. Curr. Protocol. Microbiol., Chapter 9: Unit 9D.1.
141. Loynes, C.A.; Martin, J.S.; Robertson, A.; Trushell, D.M.; Ingham, P.W.; Whyte, M.K. and Renshaw, S.A. (2010) Pivotal Advance: Pharmacological manipulation of inflammation resolution during spontaneously resolving tissue neutrophilia in the zebrafish. J. Leukoc. Biol., 87(2), 203-212.
142. [142] Fleming, A.; Jankowski, J. and Goldsmith, P. (2010) In vivo analysis of gut function and disease changes in a zebrafish larvae model of inflammatory bowel disease: a feasibility study. Inflamm. Bowel. Dis.,[Epub ahead of print]
143. Faro, A.; Boj, S.F. and Clevers, H. (2009) Fishing for intestinal cancer models: unraveling gastrointestinal homeostasis and tumori- genesis in zebrafish. Zebrafish, 6(4), 361-376.
144. Guo, S. (2009) Using zebrafish to assess the impact of drugs on neural development and function. Expert. Opin. Drug. Discov., 4(7), 715-726.
145. Egan, R.J.; Bergner, C.L.; Hart, P.C.; Cachat, J.M.; Canavello, P.R.; Elegante, M.F.; Elkhayat, S.I.; Bartels, B.K.; Tien, A.K.; Tien, D.H.; Mohnot, S.; Beeson, E.; Glasgow, E.; Amri, H.; Zukowska, Z. and Kalueff, A.V. (2009) Understanding behavioral and physiological phenotypes of stress and anxiety in zebrafish. Behav. Brain Res., 205(1), 38-44.
146. Vamadevan, A.S.; Fukata, M.; Arnold, E.T. Thomas, L.S.; Hsu, D. and Abreu, M.T. (2010) Regulation of Toll-like receptor 4- associated MD-2 in intestinal epithelial cells: a comprehensive analysis. Innate Immun., 16(2), 93-103.
147. Stone, M. (2010) Losses in ancestral microbes pose health risks to humans. Microbe, 5(3), 98-99.
148. Jirillo, F.; Martemucci, G.; D'Alessandro, A.G.; Panaro, M.A.; Cianciulli, A.; Superbo, M.; Jirillo, E. and Magrone, T. (2010) Ability of goat milk to modulate healthy human peripheral blood lymphomonocyte and polymorphonuclear cell function: in vitro effects and clinical implications. Curr. Pharm. Des., 16(7), 870-876.
149. Jirillo, F.; Jirillo, E. and Magrone, T. (2010) Donkey's and goat's milk consumption and benefits to human health with special refer- ence to the inflammatory status. Curr. Pharm. Des., 16(7), 859-863.
150. Magrone, T. and Jirillo, E. (2010) A broad variety of antigens con- tribute to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: how to neutralize noxious reactions in the host. Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets, 10(2), 149-160.