Dependent stressful life events and prior depressive episodes in the prediction of major depression: The problem of causal inference in psychiatric epidemiology

Archives of General Psychiatry

Volumn 67, Issue 11, 2010, Pages 1120-1127

  Kendler, Kenneth S ^a,b   Gardner, Charles O ^a  

^a VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; ARTICLE; CASE CONTROL STUDY; FEMALE; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; PREDICTION; RISK FACTOR; STRESS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; UNITED STATES;

ADULT; CAUSALITY; DATA COLLECTION; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; DISEASES IN TWINS; FEMALE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; PROPENSITY SCORE; QUESTIONNAIRES; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; TWINS, DIZYGOTIC; TWINS, MONOZYGOTIC;

EID: 78149314971     PISSN: 0003990X     EISSN: 15383636     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.136     Document Type: Article

References (53)

1. Rutter M. Proceeding from observed correlation to causal inference: the use of natural experiments. Perspect Psychol Sci. 2007;2:377-395.
2. Rutter M. Identifying the Environmental Causes of Disease: How Should We Decide What to Believe and When to Take Action? London, England: Academy of Medical Sciences; 2007.
3. Rutter M. Epidemiological methods to tackle causal questions. Int J Epidemiol. 2009;38(1):3-6.
4. Brown GW, Sklair F, Harris TO, Birley JL. Life-events and psychiatric disorders, I: some methodological issues. Psychol Med. 1973;3(1):74-87.
5. Paykel ES. Methodology of life events research. Adv Psychosom Med. 1987;17: 13-29.
6. Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Prescott CA. The assessment of dependence in the study of stressful life events: validation using a twin design. Psychol Med. 1999; 29(6):1455-1460.
7. Williamson DE, Birmaher B, Anderson BP, al-Shabbout M, Ryan ND. Stressful life events in depressed adolescents: the role of dependent events during the depressive episode. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(5):591-598.
8. Kessler RC. The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annu Rev Psychol. 1997;48:191-214. (Pubitemid 127485175)
9. Surtees PG, Miller PM, Ingham JG, Kreitman NB, Rennie D, Sashidharan SP. Life events and the onset of affective disorder: a longitudinal general population study. J Affect Disord. 1986;10(1):37-50.
10. Sjöholm L, Lavebratt C, Forsell Y. A multifactorial developmental model for the etiology of major depression in a population-based sample. J Affect Disord. 2009; 113(1-2):66-76.
11. Kendler KS, Gardner CO, Prescott CA. Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in women. Am J Psychiatry. 2002;159(7):1133-1145.
12. Kendler KS, Gardner CO, Prescott CA. Toward a comprehensive developmental model for major depression in men. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(1):115-124.
13. Kendler KS, Campbell J. Interventionist causal models in psychiatry: repositioning the mind-body problem. Psychol Med. 2009;39(6):881-887.
14. Woodward J. Making Things Happen. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2003.
15. Pearl J. Causality Models, Reasoning, and Inference. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press; 2000.
16. Hammen C. Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. J Abnorm Psychol. 1991;100(4):555-561.
17. Kendler KS, Gardner CO, Prescott CA. Personality and the experience of environmental adversity. Psychol Med. 2003;33(7):1193-1202.
18. Kendler KS, Karkowski-Shuman L. Stressful life events and genetic liability to major depression: genetic control of exposure to the environment? Psychol Med. 1997;27(3):539-547.
19. Kercher AJ, Rapee RM, Schniering CA. Neuroticism, life events and negative thoughts in the development of depression in adolescent girls. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2009;37(7):903-915.
20. Hammen C. Stress generation in depression: reflections on origins, research, and future directions. J Clin Psychol. 2006;62(9):1065-1082.
21. Harkness KL, Stewart JG. Symptom specificity and the prospective generation of life events in adolescence. J Abnorm Psychol. 2009;118(2):278-287.
22. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ. A longitudinal twin study of 1-year prevalence of major depression in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993; 50(11):843-852.
23. Fergusson DM, Mullen PE. Childhood Sexual Abuse: An Evidence Based Perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc; 1999.
24. Harder VS, Stuart EA, Anthony JC. Adolescent cannabis problems and young adult depression: male-female stratified propensity score analyses. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168(6):592-601.
25. Austin PC. A critical appraisal of propensity-score matching in the medical literature between 1996 and 2003. Stat Med. 2008;27(12):2037-2049.
26. Weitzen S, Lapane KL, Toledano AY, Hume AL, Mor V. Principles for modeling propensity scores in medical research: a systematic literature review. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2004;13(12):841-853. (Pubitemid 40003819)
27. Kendler KS, Prescott CA. Genes, Environment, and Psychopathology: Understanding the Causes of Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders. New York, NY: Guilford Press; 2006.
28. Kendler KS, Prescott CA. A population-based twin study of lifetime major depression in men and women [published correction appears in Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(1):94-95]. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(1):39-44.
29. Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Prescott CA. Stressful life events and major depression: risk period, long-term contextual threat, and diagnostic specificity. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1998;186(11):661-669.
30. Kendler KS, Kessler RC, Walters EE, MacLean C, Neale MC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ. Stressful life events, genetic liability, and onset of an episode of major depression in women. Am J Psychiatry. 1995;152(6):833-842.
31. Fleiss JS, Cohen J, Everett BS. Large sample standard errors of kappa and weighted kappa. Psychol Bull. 1969;72:323-327.
32. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
33. Parker G, Tupling H, Brown L. A parental bonding instrument. Br J Med Psychol. 1979;52:1-10.
34. Kendler KS, Myers J, Prescott CA. Parenting and adult mood, anxiety and substance use disorders in female twins: an epidemiological, multi-informant, retrospective study. Psychol Med. 2000;30(2):281-294.
35. Martin J, Anderson J, Romans S, Mullen P, O'Shea M. Asking about child sexual abuse: methodological implications of a two stage survey. Child Abuse Negl. 1993; 17(3):383-392.
36. Kendler KS, Bulik CM, Silberg J, Hettema JM, Myers J, Prescott CA. Childhood sexual abuse and adult psychiatric and substance use disorders in women: an epidemiological and cotwin control analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57 (10):953-959.
37. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ. Childhood parental loss and adult psychopathology in women: a twin study perspective. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49(2):109-116.
38. Eysenck SBG, Eysenck HJ, Barrett P. A revised version of the Psychoticism Scale. Pers Individ Dif. 1985;6:21-29.
39. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ. A longitudinal twin study of personality and major depression in women. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993; 50(11):853-862.
40. Rosenberg M. Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 1965.
41. Roberts SB, Kendler KS. Neuroticism and self-esteem as indices of the vulnerability to major depression in women. Psychol Med. 1999;29(5):1101-1109.
42. Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, Frecker RC, Fagerström KO. The Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence: a revision of the Fagerström Tolerance Questionnaire. Br J Addict. 1991;86(9):1119-1127.
43. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Sullivan P, Corey LA, Gardner CO, Prescott CA. A population-based twin study in women of smoking initiation and nicotine dependence. Psychol Med. 1999;29(2):299-308.
44. Spotts EL, Prescott CA, Kendler KS. Examining the origins of gender differences in marital quality: a behavior genetic analysis. J Fam Psychol. 2006; 20(4):605-613.
45. SAS Institute Inc. SAS 9.2 documentation. SAS Institute Inc Web site. 2008. http: //support.sas.com/documentation/cdl-main/index.html. Accessed September 15, 2010.
46. Imai K, King G, Stuart EA. Misunderstandings between experimentalists and observationalists about causal inference. J R Stat Soc Ser A Stat Soc. 2008;171 (2):481-502.
47. Normand ST, Landrum MB, Guadagnoli E, Ayanian JZ, Ryan TJ, Cleary PD, McNeil BJ. Validating recommendations for coronary angiography following acute myocardial infarction in the elderly: a matched analysis using propensity scores. J Clin Epidemiol. 2001;54(4):387-398. (Pubitemid 32303462)
48. Parsons LS. Reducing bias in a propensity score matched-pair sample using greedy matching techniques. In: Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual SAS Users Group International Conference. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc; 2001:214-226.
49. Raghunathan TE, Lepkowski JM, Van Hoewyk J, Solenberger P. A multivariate technique for multiply imputing missing values using a sequence of regression models. Surv Methodol. 2001;27(1):85-95.
50. Raghunathan TE, Solenberger P, Van Hoewyk J. IVEware: Imputation and Variance Estimation Software User Guide. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan; 2002.
51. Rubin DB. Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1987.
52. Li KH, Raghunathan TE, Rubin DB. Large-sample significance levels from multiply imputed data using moment-based statistics and an F-reference distribution. J Am Stat Assoc. 1991;86(416):1065-1073.
53. Kendler KS, Diehl SR. The genetics of schizophrenia: a current, geneticepidemiologic perspective. Schizophr Bull. 1993;19(2):261-285.