Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension

Clinics in Chest Medicine

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 741-758

  Auger, William R ^a   Kim, Nick H ^a   Trow, Terence K ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Chronic thromboemboli; Pulmonary endarterectomy; Pulmonary hypertension; Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy

Indexed keywords

BERAPROST; BOSENTAN; ENDOTHELIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; GUANYLATE CYCLASE ACTIVATOR; ILOPROST; PHOSPHODIESTERASE V INHIBITOR; PLACEBO; PROSTACYCLIN; PROSTANOID; RIOCIGUAT; SILDENAFIL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNIPROST;

CHRONIC THROMBOEMBOLIC PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COUGHING; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DIZZINESS; DYSPNEA; ENDARTERECTOMY; FATIGUE; HEART PALPITATION; HEMOPTYSIS; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; LUNG EMBOLISM; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTOPERATIVE PERIOD; PREOPERATIVE EVALUATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; SURVIVAL; SYNCOPE; THORAX PAIN; THROMBOEMBOLISM;

CHRONIC DISEASE; ENDARTERECTOMY; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION, PULMONARY; INCIDENCE; PULMONARY EMBOLISM; RISK FACTORS; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 78049483102     PISSN: 02725231     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2010.07.006     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. Auger W.R., Fedullo P.F. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2009, 30(4):471-483.
2. Lang I.M. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension - not so rare after all. N Engl J Med 2004, 350:2236-2238.
3. Pengo V., Lensing A.W., Prins M.H., et al. Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 2004, 350(22):2257-2264.
4. Becattini C., Agnelli G., Pesavento R., et al. Incidence of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension after a first episode of pulmonary embolism. Chest 2006, 130:172-175.
5. Miniati M., Simonetta M., Bottai M., et al. Survival and restoration of pulmonary perfusion in a long-term follow-up of patients after pulmonary embolism. Medicine (Baltimore) 2006, 85:253-262.
6. Silverstein M.D., Heit J.A., Mohr D.N., et al. Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a 25-year population-based study. Arch Intern Med 1998, 158:585-593.
7. Bonderman D., Jakowitsch J., Adlbrecht C., et al. Medical conditions increasing the risk of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Thromb Haemost 2005, 93:512-516.
8. Condliffe R., Kiely D.G., Gibbs J.S., et al. Prognostic and aetiological factors in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2009, 33(2):332-338.
9. Riedel M., Stanek V., Widimsky J., et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with pulmonary thromboembolism: late prognosis and evolution of hemodynamic and respiratory data. Chest 1982, 81:151-158.
10. Lewczuk J., Piszko P., Jagas J., et al. Prognostic factors in medically treated patients with chronic pulmonary embolism. Chest 2001, 119:818-823.
11. Condliffe R., Kiely D.G., Gibbs S.R., et al. Improved outcomes in medically and surgically treated chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008, 177:1122-1127.
12. Liu P., Meneveau N., Schiele F., et al. Predictors of long-term clinical outcome in patients with acute massive pulmonary embolism after thrombolytic therapy. Chin Med J 2003, 116:503-509.
13. Ribeiro A., Lindmarker P., Johnsson H., et al. Pulmonary embolism: one-year follow-up with echocardiography Doppler and five-year survival analysis. Circulation 1999, 99:1325-1330.
14. Wolf M., Boyer-Neumann C., Parent F., et al. Thrombotic risk factors in pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2000, 15:395-399.
15. Bonderman D., Wilkens H., Wakounig S., et al. Risk factors for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2009, 33(2):325-331.
16. Bonderman D., Turecek P.L., Jakowitsch J., et al. High prevalence of elevated clotting factor VIII in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Thromb Haemost 2003, 90:372-376.
17. Rosenhek R., Korschineck I., Gharehbaghi-Schnell E., et al. Fibrinolytic balance of the arterial wall: pulmonary artery displays increased fibrinolytic potential compared with aorta. Lab Invest 2003, 83:871-876.
18. Lang I.M., Marsh J.J., Olman M.A., et al. Parallel analysis of tissue-type plasminogen activator and type 1 plasminogen activator inhibitor in plasma and endothelial cells derived from patients with chronic pulmonary thromboemboli. Circulation 1994, 90:706-712.
19. Morris T.A., Marsh J.J., Chiles P.G., et al. Fibrin derived from patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension is resistant to lysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006, 173:1270-1275.
20. Morris T.A., Marsh J.J., Chiles P.G., et al. High prevalence of dysfibrinogenemia among patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Blood 2009, 114(9):1929-1936.
21. Moser K.M., Bloor C.M. Pulmonary vascular lesions occurring in patients with chronic major vessel thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1993, 103:685-692.
22. Ryan K.L., Fedullo P.F., Davis G.B., et al. Perfusion scan findings understate the severity of angiographic and hemodynamic compromise in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1988, 93:1180-1185.
23. Azarian R., Wartski M., Collignon M.A., et al. Lung perfusion scans and hemodynamics in acute and chronic pulmonary embolism. J Nucl Med 1997, 38:980-983.
24. Du L., Sullivan C.C., Chu D., et al. Signaling molecules in nonfamilial pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:500-509.
25. Kim H., Yung G.L., Marsh J.J., et al. Endothelin mediates pulmonary vascular remodeling in a canine model of chronic embolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2000, 15:640-648.
26. Firth A.L., Yau J., White A., et al. Chronic exposure to fibrin and fibrinogen differentially regulates intracellular Ca2+ in human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle and endothelial cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2009, 296:L979-L986.
27. Bauer M., Wilkens H., Langer F., et al. Selective upregulation of endothelin B receptor gene expression in severe pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2002, 105:1034-1036.
28. Thistlethwaite P.A., Lee S.H., Du L.L., et al. Human angiopoietin gene expression is a marker for severity of pulmonary hypertension in patients undergoing pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2001, 122:65-73.
29. Tanabe N., Kimura A., Amano S., et al. Association of clinical features with HLA in chronic pulmonary thromboembolism. Eur Respir J 2005, 25:131-138.
30. Yao W., Firth A.L., Sacks R.S., et al. Identification of putative endothelial progenitor cells (CD34+CD133+Flk-1+) in endarterectomized tissue of patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2009, 296:L870-L878.
31. Kapitan K.S., Clausen J.L., Moser K.M. Gas exchange in chronic thromboembolism after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Chest 1990, 98:14-19.
32. Jamieson S.W., Kapelanski D.P., Sakakibara N., et al. Pulmonary endarterectomy: experience and lessons learned in 1,500 cases. Ann Thorac Surg 2003, 76:1457-1462.
33. McGoon M., Gutterman D., Steen V., et al. Screening, early detection, and diagnosis of pulmonary arterial hypertension: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines. Chest 2004, 126:14S-34S.
34. Jensen K.W., Kerr K.M., Fedullo P.F., et al. Pulmonary hypertensive medical therapy in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension before pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Circulation 2009, 120:1248-1254.
35. Simonneau G., Robbins I.M., Beghetti M., et al. Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009, 54:S43-S54.
36. Auger W.R., Moser K.M. Pulmonary flow murmurs: a distinctive physical sign found in chronic pulmonary thromboembolic disease [abstract]. Clin Res 1989, 37:145A.
37. Morris T.A., Auger W.R., Ysrael M.Z., et al. Parenchymal scarring is associated with restrictive spirometric defects in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 1996, 10:399-403.
38. Thistlethwaite P.A., Auger W.R., Madani M.M., et al. Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy combined with other cardiac operations: indications, surgical approach, and outcome. Ann Thorac Surg 2001, 72:13-19.
39. Daniels L.B., Krummen D.E., Blanchard D.G. Echocardiography in pulmonary vascular disease. Cardiol Clin 2004, 22:383-399.
40. Heinrich M., Uder M., Tscholl D., et al. CT scan findings in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: predictors of hemodynamic improvement after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Chest 2005, 127:1606-1613.
41. Kreitner K.F., Kunz R.P., Ley S., et al. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: assessment by magnetic resonance imaging. Eur Radiol 2007, 17:11-21.
42. Tunariu N., Gibbs S.J.R., Win Z., et al. Ventilation-perfusion scintigraphy is more sensitive than multidetector CTPA in detecting chronic thromboembolic pulmonary disease as a treatable cause of pulmonary hypertension. J Nucl Med 2007, 48:680-684.
43. Moser K.M., Fedullo P.F., Finkbeiner W.E., et al. Do patients with primary pulmonary hypertension develop extensive central thrombi?. Circulation 1995, 91:741-745.
44. Cox J.E., Chiles C., Aquino S.L., et al. Pulmonary artery sarcomas: a review of clinical and radiologic features. J Comput Assist Tomogr 1997, 21:750-755.
45. Lisbona R., Kreisman H., Novales-Diaz J., et al. Perfusion lung scanning: differentiation of primary from thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1985, 144:27-30.
46. Auger W.R., Fedullo P.F., Moser K.M., et al. Chronic major-vessel thromboembolic pulmonary artery obstruction: appearance at angiography. Radiology 1992, 182:393-398.
47. Hartz R.S., Byme J.G., Levitsky S., et al. Predictors of mortality in pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Ann Thorac Surg 1996, 62:1255-1259.
48. Dartevelle P., Fadel E., Mussot S., et al. Chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2004, 23:637-648.
49. Keogh A.M., Mayer E., Benza R.L., et al. Interventional and surgical modalities of treatment in pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2009, 54:S67-S77.
50. Bonderman D., Skoro-Sajer N., Jakowitsch J., et al. Predictors of outcome in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2007, 115:2153-2158.
51. Tscholl D., Langer F., Wendler O., et al. Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy - risk factors for early survival and hemodynamic improvement. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2001, 19:771-776.
52. Thistlethwaite P.A., Kaneko K., Madani M., et al. Technique and outcomes of pulmonary endarterectomy surgery. Ann Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008, 14(5):274-282.
53. Saouti N., Morshuis W.J., Heijmen R.H., et al. Long-term outcome after pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: a single institution experience. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2009, 35:947-952.
54. Ishida K., Masuda M., Tanaka H., et al. Mid-term results of surgery for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 2009, 9:626-629.
55. Ogino H., Ando M., Matsuda H., et al. Japanese single-center experience of surgery for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Ann Thorac Surg 2006, 82:630-636.
56. Thomson B., Tsui S.S.L., Dunning J., et al. Pulmonary endarterectomy is possible and effective without the use of complete circulatory arrest - the UK experience in over 150 patients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2008, 33:157-163.
57. Rubens F.D., Bourke M., Hynes M., et al. Surgery for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension - inclusive experience from a national referral center. Ann Thorac Surg 2007, 83:1075-1081.
58. D'Armini A.M., Cattadori B., Monterosso C., et al. Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: hemodynamic characteristics and changes. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2000, 18:696-702.
59. Mellemkjaer S., Ilkjaer L.B., Klaaborg K.E., et al. Pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Ten years experience in Denmark. Scand Cardiovasc J 2006, 40:49-53.
60. Madani M., Jamieson S.W. Technical advances of pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2006, 18:243-250.
61. Mayer E., Klepetko W. Techniques and outcome of pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006, 3:589-593.
62. Zund G., Pretre R., Niederhauser U., et al. Improved exposure of the pulmonary arteries for thromboendarterectomy. Ann Thorac Surg 1998, 66:1821-1823.
63. Christian Hagl, Khaladj N., Peters T., et al. Technical advances of pulmonary thromboendarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2003, 23:776-781.
64. Mikus P.M., Mikus E., Martin-Suarez S., et al. Pulmonary endarterectomy: an alternative to circulatory arrest and deep hypothermia: mid-term results. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2008, 34:159-163.
65. Blanchard D.G., Malouf P.J., Gurudevan S.V., et al. Utility of right ventricular Tei index in the noninvasive evaluation of chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension before and after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2009, 2:143-149.
66. Reesink H.J., Marcus J.T., Tulevski, et al. Reverse right ventricular remodeling after pulmonary endarterectomy in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: utility of magnetic resonance imaging to demonstrate restoration of the right ventricle. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007, 133(1):58-64.
67. Iino M., Dymarkowski S., Chaothawee L., et al. Time course of reversed cardiac remodeling after pulmonary endarterectomy in patients with chronic pulmonary thromboembolism. Eur Radiol 2008, 18:792-799.
68. Tanabe N., Okada O., Nakagawa Y., et al. The efficacy of pulmonary thromboendarterectomy on long-term gas exchange. Eur Respir J 1997, 10:2066-2072.
69. Van der Plas M.N., Reesink H.J., Roos C.M., et al. Pulmonary endarterectomy improves dyspnea by the relief of dead space ventilation. Ann Thorac Surg 2010, 89:347-352.
70. Matsuda H., Ogino H., Minatoya K., et al. Long-term recovery of exercise ability after pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Ann Thorac Surg 2006, 82:1338-1343.
71. Reesink H.J., van der Plas M.N., Verhey N.E., et al. Six-minute walk distance as parameter of functional outcome after pulmonary for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2007, 133(2):510-516.
72. Zoia M.C., D'Armini A.M., Beccaria M., et al. Mid term effects of pulmonary thromboendarterectomy on clinical and cardiopulmonary function status. Thorax 2002, 57:608-612.
73. Kramm T., Mayer E., Dahm M., et al. Long-term results after thromboendarterectomy for chronic pulmonary embolism. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 1999, 15:579-584.
74. Corsico A.G., D'Armini A.M., Cerveri I., et al. Long term outcome after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008, 178:419-424.
75. Archibald C.J., Auger W.R., Fedullo P.F., et al. Long-term outcome after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999, 160:523-528.
76. Freed D.H., Thomson B.M., Tsui S.L., et al. Functional and hemodynamic outcome 1 year after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2008, 34:525-530.
77. Mo M., Kapelanski D.P., Mitruka S.N., et al. Reoperative pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Ann Thorac Surg 1999, 68:1770-1776.
78. Yi E.S., Kim H., Ahn H., et al. Distribution of obstructive intimal lesions and their cellular phenotypes in chronic pulmonary hypertension: a morphometric and immunohistochemical study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 162:1577-1586.
79. Kim N.H.S., Fesler P., Channick R.N., et al. Preoperative partitioning of pulmonary vascular resistance correlates with early outcome after thromboendarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Circulation 2004, 109:18-22.
80. Hardziyenka M., Reesink H.J., Bouma B.J., et al. A novel echocardiographic predictor of in-hospital mortality and mid-term haemodynamic improvement after pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Heart J 2007, 28:842-849.
81. Skoro-Sajer N., Mittermayer F., Panzenboeck A., et al. Asymmetric dimethylarginine is increased in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007, 176:1154-1160.
82. Galie N., Kim N.H.S. Pulmonary microvascular disease in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006, 3:571-576.
83. Bresser P., Pepke-Zaba J., Jais X., et al. Medical therapies for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006, 3:594-600.
84. Kim H., Yung G.L., Konopka R.G., et al. Pulmonary vascular remodeling distal to pulmonary artery ligation is accompanied by upregulation of endothelin receptors and nitric oxide synthase. Exp Lung Res 2000, 26:287-301.
85. Reesink H., Meijer R.C., Lutter R., et al. Hemodynamic and clinical correlates of endothelin-1 in chronic thrombembolic pulmonary hypertension. Circ J 2006, 70:1058-1063.
86. Hughes R., George P., Parameshwar J., et al. Bosentan in inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Thorax 2005, 60:707.
87. Bonderman D., Nowotny R., Skoro-Sajer N., et al. Bosentan therapy for inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 2005, 128:2599-2603.
88. Hoeper M.M., Kramm T., Wilkens H., et al. Bosentan therapy for inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 2005, 128(4):2363-2367.
89. Segovia C., Ortiz U.J.C., Gomez Bueno M., et al. Med Clin (Barc) 2007, 128(1):12-14. [in Spanish].
90. Hughes R.J., Jais X., Bonderman D., et al. The efficacy of bosentan in inoperable chronic thromoboembolic pulmonary hypertension: a 1 year follow-up study. Eur Respir J 2006, 28(1):138-143.
91. Seyfarth H.J., Hammerschmidt S., Pankau H., et al. Long-term bosentan in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Respiration 2007, 74:287-292.
92. Ulrich S., Speich R., Domenighetti G., et al. Bosentan therapy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Swiss Med Wkly 2007, 137:573-580.
93. Vassallo F.B., Kodric M., Scarduelli C., et al. Bosentan for patients with chronic thrombembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur J Intern Med 2009, 20:24-29.
94. Jais X., D'Armini A.M., Jansa P., et al. Bosentan for treatment of inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008, 52(25):2127-2134.
95. Reesink H., Surie S., Kloek J.J., et al. Bosentan as a bridge to pulmonary endarterectomy for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2010, 139:85-91.
96. Fadel E., Mazmanian G.M., Baudet B., et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase function in pig lung after chronic pulmonary artery obstruction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000, 162:1429-1434.
97. Suntharalingam J., Hughes R.J., Goldsmith K., et al. Acute hemodynamic responses to inhaled nitric oxide and intravenous sildenafil in distal chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH). Vascul Pharmacol 2007, 46:449-455.
98. Ghofrani H.A., Schermuly R.T., Rose F., et al. Sildenafil for long-term treatment of non-operable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003, 167:1139-1141.
99. Sheth A., Park J.E.S., Ong Y.E., et al. Early hemodynamic benefit of sildenafil in patients with coexisting chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension and left ventricular dysfunction. Vascul Pharmacol 2005, 42:41-45.
100. Rossi R., Nuzzo A., Lattanzi A., et al. Sildenafil improves endothelial function in patients with pulmonary hypertension. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2008, 21:172-177.
101. Chapman T.H., Wilde M., Sheth A., et al. Sildenafil therapy in secondary pulmonary hypertension: is there benefit in prolonged use?. Vascul Pharmacol 2009, 51:90-95.
102. Reichenberger F., Voswinckel R., Rutsch M., et al. Long-term treatment with sildenafil in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2007, 30:922-927.
103. Suntharalingam J., Treacy C.M., Doughty N.J., et al. Long-term use of sildenafil in inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 2008, 134:229-236.
104. Nagaya N., Shimizu Y., Satoh T., et al. Oral beraprost sodium improves exercise capacity and ventilatory efficiency in patients with primary or thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Heart 2002, 87:340-345.
105. Ono F., Nagaya N., Okumura H., et al. Effect of orally active prostacyclin analogue on survival in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension without major vessel obstruction. Chest 2003, 123:1583-1588.
106. Dario Vizza C., Badagliacca R., Sciomer S., et al. Mid-term effects of beraprost, an oral prostacylin analogue, in the treatment of distal CTEPH: a case control study. Cardiology 2006, 106:168-173.
107. Krug S., Hammerschmidt S., Pankau H., et al. Acute improved hemodynamics following inhaled iloprost in chronic thrombembolic pulmonary hypertension. Respiration 2008, 76:154-159.
108. Olchewski H., Simonneau G., Galie N., et al. Inhaled iloprost for severe pulmonary hypertension. N Engl J Med 2002, 347:322-329.
109. Cabrol S., Souza R., Jais X., et al. Intravenous epoprostenol in inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. J Heart Lung Transplant 2007, 26:357-362.
110. Kramm T., Eherle B., Krummenauer F., et al. Inhaled iloprost in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: effects before and after pulmonary thromboendarterectomy. Ann Thorac Surg 2003, 76:711-718.
111. Kramm T., Eberle B., Guth S., et al. Inhaled iloprost to control residual pulmonary hypertension following pulmonary endarterectomy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 2005, 28:882-888.
112. Lang I., Gomez-Sanches M., Kneussl M., et al. Efficacy of long-term subcutaneous treprostinil in pulmonary hypertension. Chest 2006, 129:1636-1643.
113. Skoro-Sajer N., Boderman D., Wiesbauer F., et al. Treprostinil for severe inoperable chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. J Thromb Haemost 2007, 5:483-489.
114. Voswinckel R., Reichenberger F., Enke B., et al. Acute effects of the combination of sildenafil and inhaled treprostinil on haemodynamics and gas exchange in pulmonary hypertension. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2008, 21:824-832.
115. Nagaya N., Sasaki N., Ando M., et al. Prostacylin therapy before pulmonary thromboendarterectomy in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Chest 2003, 123(2):338-343.
116. Bresser P., Fedullo P.F., Auger W.R., et al. Continuous intravenous epoprostenol for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J 2004, 23:595-600.
117. Scelsi L., Ghio S., Campana C., et al. Epoprostenol in chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension with distal lesions. Ital Heart J 2004, 5(8):618-623.
118. Ghofrani H.A., Hoeper M.M., Hoefken G., et al. Riociguat dose titration in patients with chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) or pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) [abstract]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009, 179:A3337.