A review of technology-assisted self-help and minimal contact therapies for anxiety and depression: Is human contact necessary for therapeutic efficacy?

Clinical Psychology Review

Volumn 31, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 89-103

  Newman, Michelle G ^a   Szkodny, Lauren E ^a   Llera, Sandra J ^a   Przeworski, Amy ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiety disorders; Computer assisted therapy; Depression; Internet therapy; Palmtop computer assisted therapy; Virtual reality; Web based therapy

Indexed keywords

ACROPHOBIA; ANXIETY DISORDER; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; CLAUSTROPHOBIA; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMPUTER; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DEPRESSION; DRIVING PHOBIA; FLYING PHOBIA; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MIXED ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION; MOOD DISORDER; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PANIC; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PHOBIA; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOTHERAPIST; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; SELF HELP; SOCIAL PHOBIA; SPIDER PHOBIA; TECHNOLOGY;

ANXIETY; ANXIETY DISORDERS; DEPRESSION; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HUMANS; INTERNET; THERAPY, COMPUTER-ASSISTED; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 78049474568     PISSN: 02727358     EISSN: 18737811     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.09.008     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Alvarez L.M., Sotres J.F.C., León S.O., Estrella J., Sosa J.J.S. Computer program in the treatment for major depression and cognitive impairment in university students. Computers in Human Behavior 2008, 24:816-826.
2. Amir N., Weber G., Beard C., Bomyea J., Taylor C.T. The effect of a single-session attention modification program on response to a public-speaking challenge in socially anxious individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2008, 117:860-868.
3. Amir N., Beard C., Burns M., Bomyea J. Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2009, 118:28-33.
4. Amir N., Beard C., Taylor C.T., Klumpp H., Elias J., Burns M., et al. Attention training in individuals with generalized social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2009, 77:961-973.
5. Anderson P.L., Rothbaum B.O., Hodges L.F. Virtual reality exposure in the treatment of social anxiety. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 2003, 10:240-247.
6. Anderson P.L., Jacobs C., Rothbaum B.O. Computer-supported cognitive behavioral treatment of anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2004, 60:253-267.
7. Anderson P.L., Zimand E., Hodges L.F., Rothbaurn B.O. Cognitive behavioral therapy for public-speaking anxiety using virtual reality for exposure. Depression and Anxiety 2005, 22:156-158.
8. Anderson P.L., Jacobs C.H., Lindner G.K., Edwards S., Zimand E., Hodges L.L., et al. Cognitive behavior therapy for fear of flying: Sustainability of treatment gains after September 11. Behavior Therapy 2006, 37:91-97.
9. Andersson G., Bergström J., Holländare F., Carlbring P., Kaldo V., Ekselius L. Internet-based self-help for depression: Randomised controlled trial. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2005, 187:456-461.
10. Andersson G., Carlbring P., Holmström A., Sparthan E., Furmark T., Nilsson-Ihrfelt E., et al. Internet-based self-help with therapist feedback and in vivo group exposure for social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2006, 74:677-686.
11. Andersson G., Waara J., Jonsson U., Malmaeus F., Carlbring P., Öst L.-G. Internet-based self-help versus one-session exposure in the treatment of spider phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2009, 38:114-120. doi:10.1080/16506070902931326.
12. Bachofen M., Nakagawa A., Marks I.M., Park J.M., Greist J.H., Baer L., et al. Home self-assessment and self-treatment on obsessive-compulsive disorder using 930 a manual and a computer-conducted telephone interview: Replication of a U.K.-U.931 S. study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1999, 60:545-549.
13. Baer L., Minichiello W.E., Jenike M.A. Use of a portable-computer program in behavioral treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1987, 144:1101.
14. Banos R.M., Botella C., Perpina C., Alcaniz M., Lozano J.A., Osma J., et al. Virtual reality treatment of flying phobia. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine 2002, 6:206-212.
15. Beard C., Amir N. A multi-session interpretation modification program: Changes in interpretation and social anxiety symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2008, 46:1135-1141.
16. Berger T., Hohl E.O., Caspar F. Internet-based treatment for social phobia: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2009, 65:1021-1035.
17. Bergström J., Andersson G., Karlsson A., Andreewitch S., Ruck C., Carlbring P., et al. An open study of the effectiveness of Internet treatment for panic disorder delivered in a psychiatric setting. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry 2009, 63:44-50.
18. Bornas X., Tortella Feliu M., Llabres J., Fullana M.A. Computer-assisted exposure treatment for flight phobia: A controlled study. Psychotherapy Research 2001, 11:259-273.
19. Bornas X., Tortella-Feliu M., Llabrés J., Mühlberger A., Pauli P., Barceló F. Clinical usefulness of a simulated exposure treatment for fear of flying. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology 2002, 2:247-262.
20. Bornas X., Tortella-Feliu M., Llabrés J. Do all treatments work for flight phobia? Computer-assisted exposure versus a brief multicomponent nonexposure treatment. Psychotherapy Research 2006, 16:41-50.
21. Botella C., Guillen V., García-Palacios A., Gallego M.J., Banos R.M., Alcaniz M. Telepsychology and self-help: The treatment of fear of public speaking. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 2007, 14:46-57.
22. Botella C.A., Banos R.M., Villa H., Perpina C., Garcia Palacios A. Virtual reality in the treatment of claustrophobic fear: A controlled, multiple-baseline design. Behavior Therapy 2000, 31:583-595.
23. Botella C.A., Hofmann S.G., Moscovitch D.A. A self-applied, Internet-based intervention for fear of public speaking. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2004, 60:821-830.
24. Botella C.A., Osma J., Garcia Palacios A., Quero S., Banos R.M. Treatment of flying phobia using virtual reality: Data from a 1-year follow-up using a multiple baseline design. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy 2004, 11:311-323.
25. Botella C., Quero S., Banos R.M., Garcia-Palacios A., Breton-Lopez J., Alcaniz M., Fabregat S. Telepsychology and self-help: The treatment of phobias using the Internet. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2008, 11:659. doi:10.1089/cpb.2008.0012.
26. Bowers W., Stuart S., MacFarlane R., Gorman L. Use of computer-administered cognitive-behavior therapy with depressed inpatients. Depression 1993, 1:294-299.
27. Carlbring P., Bohman S., Brunt S., Buhrman M., Westling B.E., Ekselius L., Andersson G. Remote treatment of panic disorder: A randomized trial of Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy supplemented with telephone calls. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006, 163:2119-2125. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.12.2119.
28. Carlbring P., Westling B.E., Ljungstrand P., Andersson G. Treatment of panic disorder via the Internet: A randomized trial of a self-help program. Behavior Therapy 2001, 32:751-764.
29. Carlbring P., Ekselius L., Andersson G. Treatment of panic disorder via the Internet: A randomized trial of CBT vs. applied relaxation. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2003, 34:129-140.
30. Carlbring P., Nilsson-Ihrfelt E., Waara J., Kollenstam C., Buhrman M., Kaldo V., et al. Treatment of panic disorder: Live therapy vs. self-help via the Internet. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2005, 43:1321-1333.
31. Carlbring P., Bohman S., Brunt S., Buhrman M., Westling B.E., Ekselius L., Andersson G. Remote treatment of panic disorder: A randomized trial of Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy supplemented with telephone calls. American Journal of Psychiatry 2006, 163:2119-2125.
32. Carlbring P., Furmark T., Steczkó J., Ekselius L., Andersson G. An open study of Internet-based bibliotherapy with minimal therapist contact via email for social phobia. Clinical Psychologist 2006, 10:30-38.
33. Carlbring P., Gunnarsdóttir M., Hedensjö L., Andersson G., Ekselius L., Furmark T. Treatment of social phobia: Randomised trial of Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy with telephone support. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 190:123-128.
34. Carlbring P., Nordgren L.B., Furmark T., Andersson G. Long-term outcome of Internet-delivered cognitive-behavioural therapy for social phobia: A 30-month follow-up. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2009, 47:848-850.
35. Carr A.C., Ghosh A., Marks I.M. Computer-supervised exposure treatment for phobias. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 1988, 33:112-117.
36. Chambless D.L., Ollendick T.H. Empirically supported psychological interventions: Controversies and evidence. Annual Review of Psychology 2001, 52:685-716.
37. Chandler G.M., Burck H.D., Sampson J.P. A generic computer program for systematic desensitization: Description, construction and case study. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1986, 17:171-174.
38. Chandler G.M., Burck H., Sampson J.P., Wray R. The effectiveness of a generic computer program for systematic desensitization. Computers in Human Behavior 1988, 4:339-346.
39. Choi Y.-H., Vuncelli F., Riva G., Wiederhold B.K., Lee J.-H., Park K.-H. Effects of group experiential cognitive therapy for the treatment of panic disorder with agoraphobia. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2005, 8:387-393.
40. Christensen H., Griffiths K.M., Jorm A.F. Delivering interventions for depression by using the internet: Randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal 2004, 328:265.
41. Christensen H., Griffiths K.M., Mackinnon A.J., Brittliffe K. Online randomized controlled trial of brief and full cognitive behaviour therapy for depression. Psychological Medicine 2006, 36:1737-1746.
42. Clark A., Kirkby K.C., Daniels B.A., Marks I.M. A pilot study of computer-aided vicarious exposure for obsessive-compulsive disorder. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 1998, 32:268-275.
43. Clarke G., Reid E., Eubanks D., O'Connor E., DeBar L.L., Kelleher C., et al. Overcoming Depression on the Internet (ODIN): A randomized controlled trial of an Internet depression skills intervention program. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2002, 4:E14.
44. Clarke G., Eubanks D., Reid E., Kelleher C., O'Connor E., DeBar L.L., et al. Overcoming Depression on the Internet (ODIN) (2): A randomized trial of a self-help depression skills program with reminders. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2005, 7:e16.
45. Coelho C.M., Santos J.A., Silvério J., Silva C.F. Virtual reality and acrophobia: One-year follow-up and case study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2006, 9:336-341.
46. Côté S., Bouchard S.P. Documenting the efficacy of virtual reality exposure with psychophysiological and information processing measures. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 2005, 30:217-232.
47. Craske M.G., Rose R.D., Lang A., Welch S.S., Campbell-Sills L., Sullivan G., et al. Computer-assisted delivery of cognitive behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders in primary-care settings. Depression and Anxiety 2009, 26:235-242.
48. Dewis L.M., Kirkby K.C., Martin F., Daniels B.A., Gilroy L.J., Menzies R.G. Computer-aided vicarious exposure versus live graded exposure for spider phobia in children. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2001, 32:17-27.
49. Draper M., Rees C.S., Nathan P.R. Internet-based self-management of generalised anxiety disorder: A preliminary study. Behaviour Change 2008, 25:229-244.
50. Eisdorfer C., Czaja S.J., Loewenstein D.A., Rubert M.P., Arguelles S., Mitrani V.B., et al. The effect of a family therapy and technology-based intervention on caregiver depression. The Gerontologist 2003, 43:521-531.
51. Emmelkamp P.M.G., Bruynzeel M., Drost L., Van Der Mast C.A.P.G. Virtual reality treatment in acrophobia: A comparison with exposure in vivo. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2001, 4:335-339.
52. Emmelkamp P.M.G., Krijn M., Hulsbosch A.M., de Vries S., Schuemie M.J., van der Mast C. Virtual reality treatment versus exposure in vivo: A comparative evaluation in acrophobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2002, 40:509-516.
53. Farvolden P., Denisoff E., Selby P., Bagby R.M., Rudy L. Usage and longitudinal effectiveness of a web-based self-help cognitive behavioral therapy program for panic disorder. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2005, 7:e7.
54. Fraser J., Kirkby K.C., Daniels B., Gilroy L., Montgomery I.M. Three versus six sessions of computer-aided vicarious exposure treatment for spider phobia. Behaviour Change 2001, 18:213-223.
55. Garcia-Palacios A., Hoffman H., Carlin A., Furness T.A., Botella C. Virtual reality in the treatment of spider phobia: A controlled study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2002, 40:983-993.
56. Ghosh A., Marks I.M. Self-treatment of agoraphobia by exposure. Behavior Therapy 1987, 18:3-16.
57. Ghosh A., Marks I.M., Carr A.C. Therapist contact and outcome of self-exposure treatment for phobias: A controlled study. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1988, 152:234-238.
58. Gilroy L.J., Kirkby K.C., Daniels B.A., Menzies R.G., Montgomery I.M. Controlled comparison of computer-aided vicarious exposure versus live exposure in the treatment of spider phobia. Behavior Therapy 2000, 31:733-744.
59. Gilroy L.J., Kirkby K.C., Daniels B.A., Menzies R.G., Montgomery I.M. Long-term follow-up of computer-aided vicarious exposure versus live graded exposure in the treatment of spider phobia. Behavior Therapy 2003, 34:65-76.
60. Glasgow R.E., Rosen G.M. Behavioral bibliotherapy: A review of self-help behavior therapy manuals. Psychological Bulletin 1978, 85:1-23. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.1.1.
61. Gorini A., Gaggioli A., Vigna C., Riva G. A second life for eHealth: prospects for the use of 3-D virtual worlds in clinical psychology. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2008, 10:e21.
62. Greist J.H., Marks I.M., Baer L., Kobak K.A., Wenzel K.W., Hirsch M., et al. Behavior therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder guided by a computer or by a clinician compared with relaxation as a control. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2002, 63:138-145.
63. Gruber K., Moran P.J., Roth W.T., Taylor C.B. Computer-assisted cognitive behavioral group therapy for social phobia. Behavior Therapy 2001, 32:155-165.
64. Harcourt L., Kirkby K., Daniels B., Montgomery I. The differential effect of personality on computer-based treatment of agoraphobia. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1998, 39:303-307.
65. Harris S.R., Kemmerling R.L., North M.M. Brief virtual reality therapy for public speaking anxiety. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2002, 5:543-550.
66. Hayward L., MacGregor A.D., Peck D.F., Wilkes P. The feasibility and effectiveness of computer-guided CBT (Fearfighter) in a rural area. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2007, 35:409-419.
67. Heading K., Kirkby K.C., Martin F., Daniels B.A., Gilroy L.J., Menzies R.G. Controlled comparison of single-session treatments for spider phobia: Live graded exposure alone versus computer-aided vicarious exposure. Behaviour Change 2001, 18:103-113.
68. Heron K.E., Smyth J.M. Ecological momentary interventions: Incorporating mobile technology into psychosocial and health behaviour treatments. British Journal of Health Psychology 2010, 15:1-39.
69. Hirai M., Clum G.A. An Internet-based self-change program for traumatic event related fear, distress, and maladaptive coping. Journal of Traumatic Stress 2005, 18:631-636.
70. Hoffman H.G., Garcia Palacios A., Carlin A., Furness T.A., Botella Arbona C. Interfaces that heal: Coupling real and virtual objects to treat spider phobia. International Journal of Human Computer Interaction 2003, 16:283-300.
71. Kahan M., Tanzer J., Darvin D., Borer F. Virtual reality-assisted cognitive-behavioral treatment for fear of flying: Acute treatment and follow-up. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2000, 3:387-392.
72. Kaltenthaler E., Shackley P., Stevens K., Beverley C., Parry G., Chilcott J. A systematic review and economic evaluation of computerised cognitive behaviour therapy for depression and anxiety. Health Technology Assessment 2002, 6:1-89.
73. Kaltenthaler E., Parry G., Beverley C. Computerized cognitive behaviour therapy: A systematic review. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2004, 32:31-55.
74. Kaltenthaler E., Brazier J., De Nigris E., Tumur I., Ferriter M., Beverley C., et al. Computerised cognitive behaviour therapy for depression and anxiety update: A systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technology Assessment 2006, 10:1-168.
75. Kenardy J., McCafferty K., Rosa V. Internet-delivered indicated prevention for anxiety disorders: A randomized controlled trial. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2003, 31:279-289. doi:10.1017/S1352465803003047.
76. Kenardy J., McCafferty K., Rosa V. Internet-delivered indicated prevention for anxiety disorders: Six-month follow-up. Clinical Psychologist 2006, 10:39-42. doi:10.1080/13284200500378746.
77. Kenardy J.A., Dow M.G.T., Johnston D.W., Newman M.G., Thomson A., Taylor C.B. A comparison of delivery methods of cognitive-behavioral therapy for panic disorder: An international multicenter trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003, 71:1068-1075.
78. Kenwright M., Liness S., Marks I. Reducing demands on clinicians by offering computer-aided self-help for phobia/panic: Feasibility study. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2001, 179:456-459.
79. Kenwright M., Marks I.M., Gega L., Mataix-Cols D. Computer-aided self-help for phobia/panic via Internet at home: A pilot study. The British Journal of Psychiatry 2004, 184:448-449.
80. Kiropoulos L.A., Klein B., Austin D.W., Gilson K., Pier C., Mitchell J., et al. Is Internet-based CBT for panic disorder and agoraphobia as effective as face-to-face CBT?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 2008, 22:1273-1284.
81. Klein B., Richards J.C. A brief Internet-based treatment for panic disorder. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2001, 29:113-117.
82. Klein B., Richards J.C., Austin D.W. Efficacy of Internet therapy for panic disorder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2006, 37:213-238.
83. Klein B., Shandley K., Austin D., Nordin S. A pilot trial of 'Panic Online' as a self-guided treatment for panic disorder. E-Journal of Applied Psychology 2008, 4:25-30.
84. Klein B., Austin D., Pier C., Kiropoulos L., Shandley K., Mitchell J., Gilson K., Ciechomski L. Internet-based treatment for panic disorder: Does frequency of therapist contact make a difference?. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2009, 1-14.
85. Klein B., Mitchell J., Gilson K., Shandley K., Austin D., Kiropoulos L., et al. A therapist-assisted Internet-based CBT intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder: Preliminary results. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2009, 38:121-131.
86. Klinger E., Bouchard S., Legeron P., Roy S., Lauer F., Chemin I., et al. Virtual reality therapy versus cognitive behavior therapy for social phobia: A preliminary controlled study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2005, 8:76-88.
87. Knaevelsrud C., Maercker A. Internet-based treatment for PTSD reduces distress and facilitates the development of a strong therapeutic alliance: A randomized controlled clinical trial. BMC Psychiatry 2007, 7:13.
88. Krijn M., Emmelkamp P.M.G., Biemond R., de Wilde de Ligny C., Schuemie M.J., van der Mast C.A.P.G. Treatment of acrophobia in virtual reality: The role of immersion and presence. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2004, 42:229-239.
89. Krijn M., Emmelkamp P.M.G., Olafsson R.P., Biemond R. Virtual reality exposure therapy of anxiety disorders: A review. Clinical Psychology Review 2004, 24:259-281.
90. Krijn M., Emmelkamp P.M.G., Ólafsson R.P., Schuemie M.J., Van Der Mast C.A.P.G. Do self-statements enhance the effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy? A comparative evaluation in acrophobia. CyberPsychology & Behavior 2007, 10:362. doi:10.1089/cpb.2006.9943.
91. Lamson R. Virtual therapy of anxiety disorders. CyberEdge Journal 1994, 4:1-28.
92. Lange A., Schrieken B., van de Ven J.P., Bredeweg B., Emmelkamp P.M.G., van der Kolk J., et al. "Interapy": The effects of a short protocolled treatment of posttraumatic stress and pathological grief through the Internet. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 2000, 28:175-192.
93. Lange A., van de Ven J.P., Schrieken B., Emmelkamp P.M.G. Interapy. Treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet: A controlled trial. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2001, 32:73-90.
94. Lange A., Rietdijk D., Hudcovicova M., van de Ven J.P., Schrieken B., Emmelkamp P.M.G. Interapy: A controlled randomized trial of the standardized treatment of posttraumatic stress through the Internet. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2003, 71:901-909.
95. Litz B.T., Engel C.C., Bryant R.A., Papa A. A randomized, controlled proof-of-concept trial of an Internet-based, therapist-assisted self-management treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2007, 164:1676-1683.
96. Maltby N., Kirsch I., Mayers M., Allen G.J. Virtual reality exposure therapy for the treatment of fear of flying: A controlled investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2002, 70:1112-1118.
97. Marks I.M., Baer L., Greist J.H., Park J.M., Bachofen M., Nakagawa A., et al. Home self-assessment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Use of a manual and a computer-conducted telephone interview: Two UK-US studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1998, 172:406-412.
98. Marks I.M., Kenwright M., McDonough M., Whittaker M., Mataix Cols D. Saving clinicians' time by delegating routine aspects of therapy to a computer: A randomized controlled trial in phobia/panic disorder. Psychological Medicine 2004, 34:9-17.
99. Meuret A.E., Wilhelm F.H., Ritz T., Roth W.T. Feedback of end-tidal PCO? as a therapeutic approach for panic disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research 2008, 42:560-568.
100. Mouton-Odum S., Keuthen N.J., Wagener P.D., Stanley M.A., DeBakey M.E. StopPulling.com: An Interactive, Self-Help Program for Trichotillomania. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 2006, 13:215-226.
101. Mühlberger A., Herrmann M.J., Wiedemann G., Ellgring H., Pauli P. Repeated exposure of flight phobics to flights in virtual reality. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2001, 39:1033-1050.
102. Mühlberger A., Wiedemann G., Pauli P. Efficacy of a one-session virtual reality exposure treatment for fear of flying. Psychotherapy Research 2003, 13:323-336.
103. Mühlberger A., Weik A., Pauli P., Wiedemann G. One-session virtual reality exposure treatment for fear of flying: 1-year follow-up and graduation flight accompaniment effects. Psychotherapy Research 2006, 16:26-40.
104. Nakagawa A., Marks I.M., Park J.M., Bachofen M., Baer L., Dottl S.L., et al. Self-treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder guided by manual and computer-conducted telephone interview. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare 2000, 6:22-26.
105. Nelissen I., Muris P., Merckelbach H. Computerized exposure and in vivo exposure treatments of spider fear in children: Two case reports. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 1995, 26:153-156.
106. Newman M.G., Kenardy J., Herman S., Taylor C.B. The use of hand-held computers as an adjunct to cognitive-behavior therapy. Computers in Human Behavior 1996, 12:135-143.
107. Newman M.G., Consoli A., Taylor C.B. Computers in assessment and cognitive behavioral treatment of clinical disorders: Anxiety as a case in point. Behavior Therapy 1997, 28:211-235.
108. Newman M.G., Kenardy J., Herman S., Taylor C.B. Comparison of palmtop-computer-assisted brief cognitive-behavioral treatment to cognitive-behavioral treatment for panic disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 1997, 65:178-183.
109. Newman M.G., Consoli A.J., Taylor C.B. A palmtop computer program for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Behavior Modification 1999, 23:597-619.
110. Newman M.G. Recommendations for a cost-offset model of psychotherapy allocation using generalized anxiety disorder as an example. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000, 68:549-555.
111. Newman M.G., Erickson T., Przeworski A., Dzus E. Self-help and minimal-contact therapies for anxiety disorders: Is human contact necessary for therapeutic efficacy?. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2003, 59:251-274.
112. North M.M., North S.M., Coble J.R. Effectiveness of virtual environment desensitization in the treatment of agoraphobia. PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 1995, 5:346-352.
113. North M.M., North S.M., Coble J.R. Virtual reality therapy: An effective treatment for the fear of public speaking. International Journal of Virtual Reality 1997, 3:2-7.
114. O'Kearney R., Gibson M., Christensen H., Griffiths K.M. Effects of a cognitive-behavioural Internet program on depression, vulnerability to depression and stigma in adolescent males: A school-based controlled trial. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2006, 35:43-54.
115. O'Kearney R., Kang K., Christensen H., Griffiths K. A controlled trial of a school-based Internet program for reducing depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Depression and Anxiety 2009, 26:65-72.
116. Osgood-Hynes D.J., Greist J.H., Marks I.M., Baer L., Heneman S.W., Wenzel K.W., et al. Self-administered psychotherapy for depression using a telephone-accessed computer system plus booklets: An open U.S.-U.K. study. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 1998, 59:358-365.
117. Pallavicini F., Algeri D., Repetto C., Gorini A., Riva G. Biofeedback, virtual reality and mobile phones in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): A phase-2 controlled clinical trial. Journal of CyberTherapy and Rehabilitation 2009, 2:315-327.
118. Palmer S., Bor R., Josse J. A self-help tool kit for conquering fears and anxieties about flying. Counselling Psychology Review 2000, 15:18-29.
119. Patten S.B. Prevention of depressive symptoms through the use of distance technologies. Psychiatric Services 2003, 54:396-398.
120. Proudfoot J.G. Computer-based treatment for anxiety and depression: is it feasible? Is it effective?. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2004, 28:353-363.
121. Przeworski A., Newman M.G. Palmtop computer-assisted group therapy for social phobia. Journal of Clinical Psychology 2004, 60:179-188.
122. Ready D.J., Pollack S., Rothbaum B.O., Alarcon R.D. Virtual reality exposure for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2006, 12:199-220.
123. Reiner R. Integrating a portable biofeedback device into clinical practice for patients with anxiety disorders: Results of a pilot study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 2008, 33:55-61.
124. Ressler K.J., Rothbaum B.O., Tannenbaum L., Anderson P., Graap K., Zimand E., et al. Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy: Use of d-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Archives of General Psychiatry 2004, 61:1136-1144.
125. Richards J.C., Alvarenga M.E. Extension and replication of an Internet-based treatment program for panic disorder. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 2002, 31:41-47.
126. Richards J.C., Klein B., Austin D.W. Internet cognitive behavioural therapy for panic disorder: Does the inclusion of stress management information improve end-state functioning?. Clinical Psychologist 2006, 10:2-15.
127. Robertson L., Smith M., Castle D., Tannenbaum D. Using the Internet to enhance the treatment of depression. Australasian Psychiatry 2006, 14:413-417.
128. Rothbaum B.O., Hodges L.F., Kooper R., Opdyke D., Williford J.S., North M. Effectiveness of computer-generated (virtual reality) graded exposure in the treatment of acrophobia. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1995, 152:626-628.
129. Rothbaum B.O., Hodges L., Smith S., Lee J.H., Price L. A controlled study of virtual reality exposure therapy for the fear of flying. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2000, 68:1020-1026.
130. Rothbaum B.O., Hodges L.F., Ready D., Graap K., Alarcon R.D. Virtual reality exposure therapy for Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 2001, 62:617-622.
131. Rothbaum B.O., Hodges L.F., Anderson P.L., Price L., Smith S. Twelve-month follow-up of virtual reality and standard exposure therapies for the fear of flying. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2002, 70:428-432.
132. Rothbaum B.O., Anderson P., Zimand E., Hodges L.F., Lang D., Wilson J. Virtual reality exposure therapy and standard (in vivo) exposure therapy in the treatment of fear of flying. Behavior Therapy 2006, 37:80-90.
133. Schmidt N.B., Richey J.A., Buckner J.D., Timpano K.R. Attention training for generalized social anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2009, 118:5-14.
134. Schneider A.J., Mataix-Cols D., Marks I.M., Bachofen M. Internet-guided self-help with or without exposure therapy for phobic and panic disorders. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2005, 74:154-164.
135. Seligman M.E.P., Schulman P., Tryon A.M. Group prevention of depression and anxiety symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2007, 45:1111-1126.
136. Selmi P.M., Klein M.H., Greist J.H., Sorrell S.P., Erdman H.P. Computer-administered cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression. The American Journal of Psychiatry 1990, 147:51-56.
137. Shandley K., Austin D.W., Klein B., Pier C., Schattner P., Pierce D., et al. Therapist-assisted, Internet-based treatment for panic disorder: can general practitioners achieve comparable patient outcomes to psychologists?. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2008, 10:e14.
138. Shaw S.C., Marks I.M., Toole S. Lessons from pilot tests of computer self-help for agora/claustrophobia and panic. MD Computing 1999, 16:44-48.
139. Siepmann M., Aykac V., Unterdorfer J., Petrowski K., Mueck-Weymann M. A pilot study on the effects of heart rate variability biofeedback in patients with depression and in healthy subjects. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 2008, 33:195-201.
140. Smith K.L., Kirkby K.C., Montgomery I.M., Daniels B.A. Computer-delivered modeling of exposure for spider phobia: Relevant versus irrelevant exposure. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 1997, 11:489-497.
141. Spek V., Nyklíek I., Smits N., Cuijpers P., Riper H., Keyzer J., et al. Internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy for subthreshold depression in people over 50 years old: A random controlled clinical trial. Psychological Medicine 2007, 37:1797-1806.
142. Spek V., Cuijpers P., Nyklíek I., Smits N., Riper H., Keyzer J., et al. One-year follow-up results of a randomized controlled clinical trial on Internet-based cognitive behavioural therapy for subthreshold depression in people over 50years. Psychological Medicine 2008, 38:635-639.
143. Strong, P. (2010, July 30). Online therapy, online psychotherapy & online counseling via kype [Web log comment]. Retrieved from (2010, Sept. 15). http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-mindfulness-approach/201007/onli ne-therapy-online-psychotherapy-online-counseling-skype.
144. Tillfors M., Carlbring P., Furmark T., Lewenhaupt S., Spak M., Eriksson A., et al. Treating university students with social phobia and public speaking fears: Internet delivered self-help with or without live group exposure sessions. Depression and Anxiety 2008, 25:708-717.
145. Titov N., Andrews G., Schwencke G. Shyness 2: Treating social phobia online: Replication and extension. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2008, 42:595-605.
146. Titov N., Andrews G., Schwencke G., Drobny J., Einstein D. Shyness 1: Distance treatment of social phobia over the Internet. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 2008, 42:585-594.
147. Van Voorhees B.W., Fogel J., Reinecke M.A., Gladstone T., Stuart S., Gollan J., et al. Randomized clinical trial of an Internet-based depression prevention program for adolescents (Project CATCH-IT) in primary care: 12-week outcomes. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 2009, 30:23-37.
148. Vincelli F., Anolli L., Bouchard S., Wiederhold B.K., Zurloni V., Riva G. Experiential cognitive therapy in the treatment of panic disorders with agoraphobia: A controlled study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2003, 6:321-328.
149. Wald J., Taylor S. Preliminary research on the efficacy of virtual reality exposure therapy to treat driving phobia. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2003, 6:459-465.
150. Walshe D.G., Lewis E.J., Kim S.I., O'Sullivan K., Wiederhold B.K. Exploring the use of computer games and virtual reality in exposure therapy for fear of driving following a motor vehicle accident. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2003, 6:329-334.
151. Warmerdam L., van Straten A., Twisk J., Riper H., Cuijpers P. Internet-based treatment for adults with depressive symptoms: Randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 2008, 10:e44.
152. White J., Jones R., McGarry E. Cognitive behavioural computer therapy for the anxiety disorders: A pilot study. Journal of Mental Health (UK) 2000, 9:505-516.
153. Wiederhold B.K., Jang D.P., Kim S.I., Wiederhold M.D. Physiological monitoring as an objective tool in virtual reality therapy. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2002, 5:77-82.
154. Wiederhold B.K., Wiederhold M.D. Three-year follow-up for virtual reality exposure for fear of flying. Cyberpsychology & Behavior 2003, 6:441-445.
155. Wright J.H., Wright A.S., Albano A.M., Basco M.R., Goldsmith L.J., Raffield T., et al. Computer-assisted cognitive therapy for depression: Maintaining efficacy while reducing therapist time. The American Journal
156. Yager J. E-mail as a therapeutic adjunct in the outpatient treatment of anorexia nervosa: Illustrative case material and discussion of the issues. The International Journal of Eating Disorders 2001, 29:125-138.
157. Zucker T.L., Samuelson K.W., Muench F., Greenberg M.A., Gevirtz R.N. The effects of respiratory sinus arrhythmia biofeedback on heart rate variability and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: A pilot study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback 2009, 34:135-143.