Are We Frightened Because We Run Away? Some Evidence from Metacognitive Feelings

Memory and Emotion: Interdisciplinary Perspectives

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 83-103

  Koriat, Asher ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

^b TECHNION ISRAEL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (Israel)

Author keywords

Emotional feelings; Information; Metacognitive feelings; Philosophical debate; Psychology

Indexed keywords

EID: 78049360652     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470756232.ch5     Document Type: Chapter

References (74)

1. Barnes, A. E., Nelson, T. O., Dunlosky, J., Mazzoni, G., & Narens, L. (1999). An integrative system of metamemory components involved in retrieval. In D. Gopher & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance XVII-Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp. 287-313). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2. Begg, I., Duft, S., Lalonde, P., Melnick, R., & Sanvito, J. (1989). Memory predictions are based on ease of processing. Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 610-632.
3. Benjamin, A. S. & Bjork, R. A. (1996). Retrieval fluency as a metacognitive index. In L. Reder (Ed.), Implicit memory and metacognition (pp. 309-338). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
4. Benjamin, A. S., Bjork, R. A., & Schwartz, B. L. (1998). The mismeasure of memory: When retrieval fluency is misleading as a metamnemonic index. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 55-68.
5. Bjork, R. A. (1999). Assessing our own competence: Heuristics and illusions. In D. Gopher & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance XVII-Cognitive regulation of performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp. 435-459). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
6. Bless, H. & Forgas, J. P. (Eds.) (2000). The message within: The role of subjective experience in social cognition and behavior. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
7. Carver, C. S. & Scheier, M. F. (1990). Origins and functions of positive and negative affect: A control-process view. Psychological Review, 97, 19-35.
8. Castel, A. D., Benjamin, A. S., Craik, F. I. M., & Watkins, M. J. (2002). The effects of aging on selectivity and control in short-term recall. Memory & Cognition, 30, 1078-1085.
9. Chaiken, S. & Trope, Y. (Eds.) (1999). Dual-process theories in social psychology: New York: Guilford Press.
10. Clore, G. L. (1992). Cognitive phenomenology: Feelings and the construction of judgment. In A. Tesser & L. L. Martin (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 133-163). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
11. Cohen, R. L., Sandler, S. P., & Keglevich, L. (1991). The failure of memory monitoring in a free recall task. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45, 523-538.
12. Costermans, J., Lories, G., & Ansay, C. (1992). Confidence level and feeling of knowing in question answering: The weight of inferential processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 142-150.
13. Dunlosky, J. & Hertzog, C. (1998). Training programs to improve learning in later adulthood: Helping older adults educate themselves. In D. J. Hacker (Ed.), Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 249-275). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
14. Dunlosky, J. & Thiede, K. W. (1998). What makes people study more? An evaluation of factors that affect self-paced study. Acta Psychologica, 98, 37-56.
15. Epstein, S. & Pacini, R. (1999). Some basic issues regarding dual-process theories from the perspective of cognitive-experiential self-theory. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual-process theories in social psychology (pp. 462-482). New York: Guilford Press.
16. Fischhoff, B., Slovic, P., & Lichtenstein, S. (1977). Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 552-564.
17. Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34, 906-911.
18. Goldsmith, M., Koriat, A., & Weinberg-Eliezer, A. (2002). The strategic regulation of grain size in memory reporting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 73-95.
19. Gruneberg, M. M., Monks, J., & Sykes, R. N. (1977). Some methodological problems with feelings of knowing studies. Acta Psychologica, 41, 365-371.
20. Hart, J. T. (1965). Memory and the feeling-of-knowing experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 208-216.
21. Hertzog, C., Dunlosky, J., Robinson, A. E., & Kidder, D. P. (2003). Encoding fluency is a cue used for judgments about learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 22-34.
22. Hogarth, R. M. (2001). Educating intuition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
23. Jacoby, L. L. & Brooks, L. R. (1984). Nonanalytic cognition: Memory, perception, and concept learning. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 18, pp. 1-47). San Diego: Academic Press.
24. Jacoby, L. L. & Dallas, M. (1981). On the relationship between autobiographical memory and perceptual learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 110, 306-340.
25. Jacoby, L. L., Kelley, C. M., & Dywan, J. (1989). Memory attributions. In H. L. Roediger III & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving (pp. 391-422). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
26. James, W. (1884). What is an emotion? Mind, 9, 188-205.
27. Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697-720.
28. Kelley, C. M. & Jacoby, L. L. (1998). Subjective reports and process dissociation: Fluency, knowing, and feeling. Acta Psychologica, 98, 127-140.
29. Kelley, C. M. & Lindsay, D. S. (1993). Remembering mistaken for knowing: Ease of retrieval as a basis for confidence in answers to general knowledge questions. Journal of Memory and Language, 32, 1-24.
30. Kelley, C. M. & Rhodes, M. G. (2002). Making sense and nonsense of experience: Attributions in memory and judgment. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), Psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in theory and research (Vol. 41, pp. 293-320). New York: Academic Press.
31. Koriat, A. (1993). How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing. Psychological Review, 100, 609-639.
32. Koriat, A. (1994). Memory's knowledge of its own knowledge: The accessibility account of the feeling of knowing. In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 115-135). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
33. Koriat, A. (1995). Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 311-333.
34. Koriat, A. (1997). Monitoring one's own knowledge during study: A cue-utilization approach to judgments of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 126, 349-370.
35. Koriat, A. (1998). Metamemory: The feeling of knowing and its vagaries. In M. Sabourin, F. I. M. Craik, & M. Robert (Eds.), Advances in psychological science (Vol. 2, pp. 461-469). Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
36. Koriat, A. (2000). The feeling of knowing: Some metatheoretical implications for consciousness and control. Consciousness and Cognition, 9, 149-171.
37. Koriat, A. (2005). Metacognition and consciousness. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Moscovitch, & E. Thompson (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of consciousness. New York: Cambridge University Press.
38. Koriat, A., Ben-zur, H., & Sheffer, D. (1988). Telling the same story twice: Output monitoring and age. Journal of Memory and Language, 27, 23-39.
39. Koriat, A., Bjork, R. A., Sheffer, L., & Bar, S. K. (2004). Predicting one's own forgetting: The role of experience-based and theory-based processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 643-656.
40. Koriat, A. & Goldsmith, M. (1994). Memory in naturalistic and laboratory contexts: Distinguishing the accuracy-oriented and quantity-oriented approaches to memory assessment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 297-315.
41. Koriat, A. & Goldsmith, M. (1996). Monitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy. Psychological Review, 103, 490-517.
42. Koriat, A., Goldsmith, M., & Pansky, A. (2000). Toward a psychology of memory accuracy. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 481-537.
43. Koriat, A. & Levy-Sadot, R. (1999). Processes underlying metacognitive judgments: Information-based and experience-based monitoring of one's own knowledge. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 483-502). New York: Guilford Press.
44. Koriat, A. & Levy-Sadot, R. (2001). The combined contributions of the cue-familiarity and accessibility heuristics to feelings of knowing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 34-53.
45. Koriat, A. & Ma'ayan, H. (2005). The effects of encoding fluency and retrieval fluency on judgments of learning. Journal of Memory and Language, 52, 478-492.
46. Koriat, A., Ma'ayan, H., & Nussinson, R. (2006). The intricate relationships between monitoring and control in metacognition: Lessons for the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, in press.
47. Matvey, G., Dunlosky, J., & Guttentag, R. (2001). Fluency of retrieval at study affects judgments of learning (JOLs): An analytic or nonanalytic basis for JOLs? Memory & Cognition, 29, 222-233.
48. Metcalfe, J. & Kornell, N. (2003). The dynamics of learning and allocation of study time to a region of proximal learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 530-542.
49. Metcalfe, J., Schwartz, B. L., & Joaquim, S. G. (1993). The cue-familiarity heuristic in metacognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 851-864.
50. Mitchell, K. J. & Johnson, M. K. (2000). Source monitoring: Attributing mental experiences. In F. I. M. Craik & E. Tulving (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of memory (pp. 179-195). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
51. Nelson, T. O. (1996). Gamma is a measure of the accuracy of predicting performance on one item relative to another item, not of the absolute performance on an individual item. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 257-260.
52. Nelson, T. O. & Dunlosky, J. (1991). When people's judgments of learning (JOLs) are extremely accurate at predicting subsequent recall: The "delayed-JOL effect." Psychological Science, 2, 267-270.
53. Nelson, T. O., Gerler, D., & Narens, L. (1984). Accuracy of feeling of knowing judgments for predicting perceptual identification and relearning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 113, 282-300.
54. Nelson, T. O. & Leonesio, R. J. (1988). Allocation of self-paced study time and the "labor-in-vain effect." Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14, 676-686.
55. Nelson, T. O. & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 26, pp. 123-125). San Diego: Academic Press.
56. Nelson, T. O., Narens, L., & Dunlosky, J. (2004). A revised methodology for research on metamemory: Pre-judgment recall and monitoring (PRAM). Psychological Methods, 9, 53-69.
57. Posner, M. I. & Snyder, C. R. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium (pp. 55-85). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
58. Reder, L. M. (1987). Strategy selection in question answering. Cognitive Psychology, 19, 90-138.
59. Reder, L. M. & Ritter, F. E. (1992). What determines initial feeling of knowing? Familiarity with question terms, not with the answer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 435-451.
60. Reder, L. M. & Schunn, C. D. (1996). Metacognition does not imply awareness: Strategy choice is governed by implicit learning and memory. In L. M. Reder (Ed.), Implicit memory and metacognition (pp. 45-77). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
61. Robinson, M. D., Johnson, J. T., & Herndon, F. (1997). Reaction time and assessments of cognitive effort as predictors of eyewitness memory accuracy and confidence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 416-425.
62. Schachter, S. & Singer, J. (1962). Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review, 69, 379-399.
63. Schacter, D. L. (1989). On the relations between memory and consciousness: Dissociable interactions and conscious experience. In H. L. Roediger & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Varieties of memory and consciousness: Essays in honour of Endel Tulving (pp. 355-389). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
64. Schwartz, B. L. (1994). Sources of information in metamemory: Judgments of learning and feelings of knowing. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 1, 357-375.
65. Schwartz, B. L. (2001). The relation of tip-of-the-tongue states and retrieval time. Memory & Cognition, 29, 117-126.
66. Schwartz, B. L. (2002). Tip-of-the-tongue states: Phenomenology, mechanism, and lexical retrieval. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
67. Schwarz, N. & Clore, G. L. (2003). Mood as information: 20 years later. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 296-303.
68. Slovic, P., Finucane, M., Peters, E., & MacGregor, D. G. (2002). The affect heuristic. In T. Gilovich, D. Griffin, & D. Kahneman (Eds.), Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (pp. 397-420). New York: Cambridge University Press.
69. Son, L. K. & Metcalfe, J. (2000). Metacognitive and control strategies in studytime allocation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 204-221.
70. Strack, F. (1992). The different routes to social judgments: Experiential versus informational strategies. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 249-275). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
71. Thiede, K. W., Anderson, M. C. M., & Therriault, D. (2003). Accuracy of metacognitive monitoring affects learning of texts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 66-73.
72. Thiede, K. W. & Dunlosky, J. (1999). Toward a general model of self-regulated study: An analysis of selection of items for study and self-paced study time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 25, 1024-1037.
73. Whittlesea, B. W. A. (2002). Two routes to remembering (and another to remembering not). Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 325-348.
74. Whittlesea, B. W. A. (2004). The perception of integrality: Remembering through the validation of expectation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 891-908.